Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis and Tri-colored Bat recovery strategy

1. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) species assessment information

Date of Assessment: November 2013

Common Name (population): Little Brown Myotis

Scientific Name: Myotis lucifugus

COSEWIC Status: Endangered

Reason for Designation: Approximately 50% of the global range of this small bat is found in Canada. Sub-populations in the eastern part of the range have been devastated by White-nose Syndrome, a fungal disease caused by an introduced pathogen. This disease was first detected in Canada in 2010, and to date has caused a 94% overall decline in known numbers of hibernating Myotis bats in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario, and Quebec. The current range of White-nose Syndrome has been expanding at an average rate of 200-250 kilometres per year. At that rate, the entire Canadian population is likely to be affected within 12 to 18 years. There is no apparent containment of the northward or westward spread of the pathogen, and proper growing conditions for it exist throughout the remaining range.

Canadian Occurrence: Yukon, Northwest Territories, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Labrador

COSEWIC Status History: Designated Endangered in an emergency assessment on February 3, 2012. Status re-examined and confirmed in November 2013.

Date of Assessment: November 2013

Common Name (population): Northern Myotis

Scientific Name: Myotis septentrionalis

COSEWIC Status: Endangered

Reason for Designation: Approximately 40% of the global range of this northern bat is in Canada. Sub-populations in the eastern part of the range have been devastated by White-nose Syndrome, a fungal disease caused by an introduced pathogen. This disease was first detected in Canada in 2010 and to date has caused a 94% overall decline in numbers of known hibernating Myotis bats in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario, and Quebec hibernacula compared with earlier counts before the disease struck. Models in the northeastern United States for Little Brown Myotis predict a 99% probability of functional extirpation by 2026. Given similar life history characteristics, these results are likely applicable to this species. In addition to its tendency to occur in relatively low abundance levels in hibernacula, there is some indication this species is experiencing greater declines than other species since the onset of White-nose Syndrome. The current range of White-nose Syndrome overlaps with approximately one third of this species' range and is expanding at an average rate of 200 to 250 kilometres per year. At that rate, the entire Canadian population will likely be affected within 12 to 18 years. There is no apparent containment of the northward or westward spread of the pathogen, and proper growing conditions for it exist throughout the remaining range.

Canadian Occurrence: Yukon, Northwest Territories, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Labrador

COSEWIC Status History: Designated Endangered in an emergency assessment on February 3, 2012. Status re-examined and confirmed in November 2013.

Date of Assessment: November 2013

Common Name (population): Tri-colored Bat

Scientific Name: Perimyotis subflavus

COSEWIC Status: Endangered

Reason for Designation: This bat is one of the smallest bats in eastern North America. Approximately 10% of its global range is in Canada, and it is considered rare in much of its Canadian range. Declines of more than 75% have occurred in the known hibernating populations in Quebec and New Brunswick due to White-nose Syndrome. This fungal disease, caused by an invasive pathogen, was first detected in Canada in 2010, and has caused similar declines in Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis in eastern Canada and the northeastern United States. Most of the Canadian range of the species overlaps with the current White-nose Syndrome range, and further declines are expected as more hibernacula continue to become infected.

Canadian Occurrence: Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia

COSEWIC Status History: Designated Endangered in an emergency assessment on February 3, 2012. Status re-examined and confirmed in November 2013.

2. Species status information

Approximately 50%, 40%, and 10% of the global ranges of Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat, respectively, occur in Canada (COSEWIC 2013).

Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat were listed as Endangered in Canada under Schedule 1 of the Species at Risk Act (SARA, c. 29) in November 2014 by an emergency listing order. Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis were listed as Endangered in January 2013 on the Species at Risk in Ontario (SARO) List (O. Reg. 230/08) under Ontario’s Endangered Species Act, 2007 (OMNRF 2015). The three species also receive protection under Ontario’s Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1997 as specially protected mammals. All three species were listed as Endangered by the New Brunswick Species at Risk Act in June 2013 and were added to the list of animals protected under the Nova Scotia Endangered Species Act in July 2013. Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis were listed as Endangered under Manitoba’s Endangered Species and Ecosystems Act in June 2015.

These species are not listed under the provincial and territorial endangered species legislations of Yukon, British Columbia, Northwest Territories, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Quebec, or Newfoundland and Labrador, although they are afforded some level of protection (individuals and/or habitat) under the Wildlife Acts of these provinces and territories. In Quebec, Tri-colored Bat is listed on the Liste des espèces susceptibles d’être désignées menacées ou vulnérables (list of wildlife species likely to be designated threatened or vulnerable). This list is produced according to the Loi sur les espèces menacées ou vulnérables (RLRQ, c E-12.01) (Act respecting threatened or vulnerable species) (CQLR, c E-12.01), its inclusion on this list could lead to the adoption of some measures beneficial to the species. In Saskatchewan, The Wildlife Amendment Regulation, 2013 removed all Chiroptera from the list of unprotected wildlife, thereby granting them protection from all harm. These species are not listed, nor do they receive protection under the Wildlife Conservation Act in Prince Edward Island. The Province of Newfoundland and Labrador are in the process of assessing the bat species for inclusion on their Endangered Species Act. There are no confirmed records of these species in Nunavut, but there has been limited survey coverage.

NatureServe (2015) ranks for Canada and the United States (U.S.) are presented in Table 1.

Types of ranks: G = global conservation status rank, N = national conservation status rank, and S = sub-national (provincial or territorial) ranks.

Definitions of rank: 1 = critically imperiled; 2 = imperiled; 3 = vulnerable; 4 = apparently secure; 5 = secure; SNR = unranked; SU = unrankable; B = breeding; N = non-breeding.

3 Species information

3.1. Species description

Little Brown Myotis

Little Brown Myotis is a small (7-9 g) brown bat with black ears, black wings, and a black tail membrane (van Zyll de Jong 1985). Its wingspan is approximately 22-27 cm. Females tend to be slightly larger than males (Harvey et al. 2011). Compared to other mammals, Little Brown Myotis has a long lifespan; some individuals live more than 30 years (Davis and Hitchcock 1995). When acoustically recorded in treed or otherwise cluttered environments, Little Brown and Northern Myotis produce echolocation calls that are very similar and can be confused with other Myotis species.

Northern Myotis

Northern Myotis, also known as Northern Long-eared Bat, is a small bat (5-8 g) similar in size and colouration to Little Brown Myotis, but is generally distinguishable by its longer ears that extend beyond the nose when pressed forward, longer tail, and larger wing area (Caceres and Barclay 2000, Harvey et al. 2011). It can also be distinguished by its tragus^{footnote 2[2]}, which is long and thin with a pointed tip (van Zyll de Jong 1985). Northern Myotis has similar life history characteristics to Little Brown Myotis; the longevity record in the wild is 18.5 years (Caceres and Barclay 2000).

Tri-colored Bat

Tri-colored Bat, formerly known as Eastern Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus subflavus), has a distinct colouration; each hair is black at the base, yellow in the middle, and brown at the tip giving the bat an overall reddish-brown to yellowish-brown colour (Harvey et al. 2011). Its ears and face are brown, forearms are orange-red or pinkish, and its wings and flight membranes are blackish (Fujita and Kunz 1984, Naughton 2012). Tri-colored Bat is similar in size and weight (5-9 g) to Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis (Fujita and Kunz 1984, van Zyll de Jong 1985, Farrow and Broders 2011).

3.2. Species population and distribution

Distribution

Little Brown Myotis

Little Brown Myotis has been confirmed in every province and territory throughout Canada with the exception of Nunavut where no known observations meeting evidentiary standards exist (i.e., recorded but not confirmed) (COSEWIC 2013). In general, its Canadian distribution includes the boreal forest south of the treeline through to the U.S. border (van Zyll de Jong 1985, Grindal et al. 2011, Burles et al. 2014) (Figure 1).

The northern limit of its distribution is difficult to define because of limited survey effort and difficulties related to survey logistics (e.g., large area, few roads – see Jung et al. 2014 for a more comprehensive explanation). Few maternity roosts or hibernacula have been located in the northern portions of the range (COSEWIC 2013); however, Wilson et al. (2014) observed reproductive females and maternity colonies of Little Brown Myotis in southwest and south central Northwest Territories. The species is also found south of 64° in Yukon (Slough and Jung 2008). Hibernacula have been confirmed in the Northwest Territories though no hibernacula have been found in Yukon (Slough and Jung 2008, Wilson et al. 2014). Scattered records from Nunavut and northern Northwest Territories exist (i.e., north of the defined range in Figure 1); however, it is unclear if these records represent resident breeding individuals or extralimital^{footnote 3[3]} observations (COSEWIC 2013).

Northern Myotis

Northern Myotis has been confirmed in every province and territory throughout Canada with the exception of Nunavut (van Zyll de Jong 1985, Brown et al. 2007, Henderson et al. 2009, Park and Broders 2012, Broders et al. 2013, Reimer and Kaupas 2013, CWHC 2018) (Figure 2). Its Canadian distribution includes the boreal forest south of the treeline and into the montane forests of the west and deciduous and mixedwood forests of the east.  It is mostly absent from the Canadian Prairies, and when it is found outside of forested regions, it is found in forest remnants or at hibernacula (Turner 1974).

Similar to Little Brown Myotis, the northern limit of Northern Myotis’ range is difficult to determine due to limited survey effort and difficulties related to survey logistics (e.g., large area, few roads). However, Northern Myotis has been confirmed breeding in Yukon (Lausen et al. 2008) and the Northwest Territories (Wilson et al. 2014). Hibernation sites have not been recorded in Yukon (Jung et al. 2006, Slough and Jung 2007), but likely exist in the Northwest Territories (Wilson et al. 2014).

Population

This recovery strategy defines two periods relevant to the discussion of bat populations in Canada: the period prior to the arrival of WNS in Canada (up to and including 2009) and the period after the arrival of WNS in Canada (2010 and onwards). However, it should be noted that the population sizes and the relative abundance of the three bat species in Canada are unknown pre- and post-WNS (both in Canada and in North America) and, therefore, it is challenging to obtain accurate estimates of abundance and consequently species-specific declines in the Canadian populations.

In the northeastern U.S., Langwig et al. (2012) estimated that bat populations (all species) in general, prior to the arrival of WNS, were growing at an average rate of 8% per year. Population trend analyses of hibernacula data from across the U.S. indicated the population trends of these three species of bat specifically were relatively stable (i.e., a positive or negative trend was unable to be detected) (Ellison et al. 2003, Frick et al. 2010a, Frick et al. 2010b). Count data at hibernacula during the winter are often used to determine relative abundance and infer population trends. Substantial intra- and inter-annual variation in the number of hibernating bats (and species) can exist within a hibernaculum (Trombulak et al. 2001); nonetheless, winter hibernacula data are likely an accurate reflection of the population status in all three bat species’ populations (COSEWIC 2013). In addition, summer survey data corroborate observations collected at hibernacula (COSEWIC 2013, Natureserve 2015).

Since the arrival of WNS to North America in 2006, the most precipitous declines in North American wildlife in recorded history have been observed (Kunz and Tuttle 2009). An estimated one million bats (multiple species) died in the northeastern U.S. within three years of the arrival of WNS (Kunz and Tuttle 2009), and an estimated 5.7 to 6.7 million bats died within six years of its arrival (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2012). In Canada, the total number of Myotis spp. bats recorded in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Ontario, and Quebec hibernacula declined by approximately 94% between 2010 and 2012 (COSEWIC 2013). In Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, following the arrival of WNS, some hibernacula no longer have any individuals of these species of bats present (McAlpine and Vanderwolf, unpub. data in COSEWIC 2013, Mainguy and Desrosiers 2011, H. Broders pers. comm. 2015).

There is limited information related to the proportion of bat populations found in eastern Canada versus western Canada. In Canada, 95% of records of hibernating Myotis spp. bats are from Nova Scotia to Manitoba, while relatively few had been recorded west of Manitoba (COSEWIC 2013). Fewer hibernacula have been found in the western provinces and northern territories as compared to the east (excluding Newfoundland and Labrador where few hibernacula are also known); furthermore, hibernacula in the east tended to have more individuals per site (>10,000) compared to hibernacula in the north and west (<1000 per site) (Nagorsen and Brigham 1993, Olson et al. 2011). Some researchers suggest that a large proportion of the Little Brown Myotis population prior to WNS resided in the northeastern United States (Kunz and Reichard 2010). Genetic evidence also exists to suggest populations in the east were larger than populations in the west (Wilder 2014). However, bats in northern and western Canada may not necessarily be less abundant but instead tend to overwinter singly or in small numbers, making it more difficult to obtain accurate population estimates (i.e., many sites with small numbers of bats in the north and west compared to few sites with large numbers in the east). Comparisons between eastern and western population levels should be interpreted with caution because of the survey limitations previously mentioned for the north in addition to issues in the west (i.e., British Columbia) in differentiating Little Brown Myotis from Yuma Myotis (Myotis yumanensis) (COSEWIC 2013).

Little Brown Myotis

Pre-WNS

Evidence from multiple surveys suggests that Little Brown Myotis was probably the most common bat throughout much of Canada, and still is in many areas outside of those impacted by WNS (COSEWIC 2013). Little Brown Myotis is thought to be relatively common in the northern limits of its range, although abundance is difficult to estimate because of previously discussed issues with surveying populations in the north (COSEWIC 2013, Jung et al. 2014).

The Canadian population size of Little Brown Myotis prior to the arrival of WNS is unknown but likely exceeded one million individuals (COSEWIC 2013). Frick et al. (2010a) estimated the population was 6.5 million individuals in the northeastern U.S. as of 2006 which further supports numbers in excess of 1 million for Canada. NatureServe (2015) estimated the global population size to be 100,000 to >1,000,000 individuals prior to WNS. Data from known hibernacula are incomplete but, prior to the arrival of WNS, some known hibernacula were used by thousands to tens of thousands of bats in southern Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Manitoba (Fenton 1970, Scott and Hebda 2004, Mainguy and Desrosiers 2011).

Post-WNS

NatureServe (2015) states that the current global population size is unknown but likely still exceeds 100,000 individuals. Model results predicted that Little Brown Myotis will be functionally extirpated^{footnote 4[4]} (i.e., 1% of pre-WNS population or 65,000 individuals) in the northeastern U.S. by 2026 (Frick et al. 2010a). However, new evidence suggests that some individuals are surviving the infection and survival rates have increased at locations previously decimated by WNS; however, the increased rates of survival are not sufficient to support a positive population growth trend (Maslo et al. 2015). The entire Canadian range of Little Brown Myotis is expected to be impacted by WNS between 2025 and 2028 (COSEWIC 2013). With the recent (ca. 2016) detection of WNS in Washington State, this may occur sooner than what was anticipated in the species’ COSEWIC status report (2013).

Northern Myotis

Pre-WNS

Evidence suggests that Northern Myotis is less common than Little Brown Myotis, in part, because they have a more restricted distribution within Canada and are reliant on forested areas (COSEWIC 2013). Observations made during summer indicate that the species is relatively common in the southern Northwest Territories and uncommon at the western and northern edges of their range (Jung et al. 2014, Wilson et al. 2014). At some eastern sites (e.g., Newfoundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia), numbers were more or less equal to Little Brown Myotis (Park and Broders 2012). However, counts obtained from individual hibernacula in the winter indicate relatively few (i.e., <100) Northern Myotis (Barbour and Davis 1969, Amelon and Burhans 2006). This may be a result of difficulties in detecting Northern Myotis in hibernacula because they are often found in deep cracks (COSEWIC 2013). In addition, it is difficult to distinguish between Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis while conducting visual winter hibernacula counts.

The Canadian population size of Northern Myotis is unknown but is believed to have also exceeded one million individuals before the arrival of WNS (COSEWIC 2013). In contrast, NatureServe (2015) estimated that the global population size was relatively small prior to WNS (2,500 to 100,000 individuals). However, NatureServe notes that this estimate is supported by low counts at hibernacula (which may be related to issues with detectability). In addition, the NatureServe estimate appears to be primarily based on counts within the U.S. part of the range. Based on Harvey (1992) and D. Morningstar (pers. comm. 2015), the species is probably more common and abundant in the northern part of its global range (i.e., boreal) than in the south (COSEWIC 2006).

Post-WNS

Declines of Northern Myotis populations in the northeastern U.S. have occurred at the same rate as Little Brown Myotis; an expected result given the two species have similar life history traits and often share same hibernacula. Thus, it was predicted that Northern Myotis will likely also be functionally extirpated (i.e., 1% of pre-WNS population) in the northeastern U.S. by 2026 (Frick et al. 2010a). However, new evidence for Little Brown Myotis suggests that low numbers of individuals are surviving the infection and survival rates have increased at locations previously decimated by WNS, a trend which may also apply to Northern Myotis. The entire Canadian range of Northern Myotis is expected to be impacted by WNS between 2025 and 2028 (COSEWIC 2013). With the 2016 detection of WNS in Washington State, this may occur sooner than anticipated in 2013.

Tri-colored Bat

Pre-WNS

Although too little data exist to reliably estimate the population size of Tri-colored Bat, the species was relatively rare in the Maritimes, Quebec, and in parts of Ontario (COSEWIC 2013). It is also rare in the adjacent states of Vermont (Darling and Smith 2011) and Maine (Zimmerman and Glanz 2000). In addition to being uncommon, Tri-colored Bats tend to hibernate solitarily within hibernacula, often within the deepest parts of the cave where human access is limited, and thus, may be more difficult to detect during hibernation than other species (Hitchcock 1949, Fujita and Kunz 1984, Sandel et al. 2001, COSEWIC 2013).

The Canadian population size of Tri-colored Bat prior to WNS is unknown; however, the COSEWIC (2013) status report provides <20,000 individuals in Canada as a rough estimate. NatureServe (2015) estimated that the global population size was between 10,000 to 1,000,000 individuals prior to WNS. In Nova Scotia, it was estimated that between 1,000 and 2,000 adult females existed (H. Broders, pers. comm. in COSEWIC 2013). Across the Canadian range, the species accounted for between 0.2 to 4.5% of individuals counted at various hibernacula (Hitchcock 1949, 1965, Mainguy and Desrosiers 2011, Vanderwolf et al. 2012).

Post-WNS

The Tri-colored Bat population declines in areas affected by WNS in Canada and the U.S. are likely similar to that observed in Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis, though the declines observed in this species are less straightforward (COSEWIC 2013). In part, this is because of the small numbers of Tri-colored Bats that have been recorded from monitored Canadian hibernacula and because the species shows evidence of a seasonal latitudinal migration (Fraser et al. 2012), both of which may affect interpretation of Canadian population trends.

Declines observed since the arrival of WNS have been variable. The average population decline in five northeastern states was 75% (range 16 to 95%) between 2006 and 2010, with 13 of 36 hibernacula declining 100% (Turner et al. 2011). Acoustic monitoring during the summers of 2007-2009 in New York yielded similar population declines to those listed above (i.e., 78% between 2008 and 2009) (Dzal et al. 2011). In eastern Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia there are indications the Tri-colored Bat population may have declined by as much as 94% compared to pre-WNS populations (Mainguy and Desrosiers 2011, L. Hale, pers. comm. in COSEWIC 2013). In southern Ontario, significant declines were also noted at eight locations where acoustic monitoring was performed prior to the arrival of WNS and again in 2014 (D. Morningstar, pers. comm. 2015). In New Brunswick, declines at individual hibernacula have ranged from 30% to more than 75% (D. McAlpine and K. Vanderwolf, unpub. data in COSEWIC 2013, D. McAlpine pers. comm. in COSEWIC 2013). NatureServe (2015) states that the current global population size is unknown but likely still exceeds 10,000 individuals.

3.3 Needs of Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat

The habitat requirements of temperate-region bats vary by season. The habitat is composed of (1) overwintering habitat (i.e., hibernacula, such as caves, abandoned mines, and wells) used for hibernation and overwinter survival, (2) summering habitat that includes roosting habitat (for maternity roosts and males) and foraging habitat within commuting range of the roosts (Sasse and Perkins 1996, Norquay et al. 2013), and (3) swarming habitat used in the late summer and early fall for mating and socializing (Fenton 1969, Randall and Broders 2014). Swarming sites are also typically used as hibernacula (Fenton 1969, Randall and Broders 2014).

Overwintering and swarming habitat

Hibernating bats survive the winter using stored fat reserves accumulated during the summer and autumn (Jonasson and Willis 2011). Hibernation allows year-round resident, insect-eating bats to persist in a region when ambient temperature declines and insects are not available in winter. Though winter in Canada is commonly understood as the months of December, January and February, the period that bats hibernate may extend longer in some locations (e.g., in the north). Hibernating bats minimize use of fat reserves by decreasing metabolic rate and body temperature to within a few degrees of the ambient temperature in the hibernaculum (i.e., they enter torporTorpor is a state of physical inactivity (reduced body temperature and metabolic rate).) (Henshaw and Folk 1966).

Hibernacula for Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat are generally underground openings, including caves, abandoned mines, wells, and tunnels, but at some sites only specific sections of the site will be used for hibernation. The sections used for hibernating typically have a temperature range between 2˚C and 10˚C (Fenton 1970, Anderson and Robert 1971, Vanderwolf et al. 2012), and relative humidity levels > 80% to reduce evaporative water loss (Cryan et al. 2010, but see Kurta 2014). Structural features, such as number of openings, cave size and length, and angle of chambers can influence the stability and levels of humidity and temperature (Davis 1970, Raesly and Gates 1987). Because of the specific, stable microclimates required by bats, hibernacula are typically used year after year by overwintering bats.

Stable microclimates are preferred by bats because temperature fluctuations can cause arousals from torpor. Bats will arouse from torpor to access water, groom, and mate (Whitaker and Rissler 1993, Thomas 1995), but they consume a significant portion of their limited energy reserve during arousals (Thomas et al. 1990). Relocating to more suitable sites can accelerate the depletion of limited energy reserves, but may also be used as an adaptation for long-term energy conservation.

Where their distributional ranges overlap, all three bat species may occur in the same hibernaculum, but may be found in different sections. Northern Myotis and Tri-colored Bat do not typically overwinter in buildings, but Little Brown Myotis may overwinter in buildings in western Canada (C. Lausen, pers. comm. 2015), where winter temperatures are relatively high. Little is known regarding the overwintering habitat of Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis in western Canada.

Bats congregate in swarming habitat in the late summer and early fall. Swarming sites may function as mating sites, stopover locations during migration, social sites for information transfer, and/or allow individuals to assess potential sites for overwintering (Fenton 1969, Randall and Broders 2014). Swarming behaviour often occurs in and around entrances or openings of hibernacula. Both Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis often swarm and hibernate at the same locations (Randall and Broders 2014), but the proportion of bats that visit a swarming site in relation to those that stay at the site for hibernation is unknown (Johnson et al. 2015), and possibly quite low in some cases (M. Davis, pers. comm. 2016). Swarming groups of Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis in eastern Canada are comprised of individuals from various summering sites and therefore gene pools may span relatively large areas (Burns et al. 2014, Johnson et al. 2015, Segers and Broders 2015).

Few studies have attempted to characterize external habitat features that predict selection of hibernacula and swarming sites by bats. In Nova Scotia, a survey of natural and anthropogenic swarming sites (abandoned mines), also assumed to be hibernacula, revealed that the amount of entrance shelter (i.e., canopy cover and/or rock faces that provide protection from weather elements), watercourse length within a 2 km radius of the site, and total chamber length of the hibernaculum were significant predictors of Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis swarming activity (Randall and Broders 2014). Generally, swarming sites had more exposed entrances, greater total length of rivers, creeks, and streams within a 2 km radius, and deeper / longer chamber lengths, than sites surveyed where swarming activity levels were low or absent (Randall and Broders 2014). For example, an 10% increase in the degree of entrance shelter resulted the probability of swarming declining by 50% and the probability of swarming doubled with an increase of 10 km of stream length within a 2 km radius (Randall and Broders 2014).

Little Brown Myotis

Little Brown Myotis appear to derive energetic and water conservation benefits from clustering while hibernating. In Michigan, Kurta and Smith (2014) found that 78% of individuals hibernated in clusters and were more likely to be found in clusters (rather than solitarily) at lower temperatures. In western Canada, the number of Little Brown Myotis hibernating together may be substantially less than in northeastern North America, although clusters as large as 52 individuals have been observed in a hibernaculum containing 3000 individuals in southwestern Northwest Territories (Lausen 2011); bats likely hibernate singly or in small groups west of the Rocky Mountains (Jung et al. 2014). A recent radio-telemetry study in the temperate rainforest of southeast Alaska found Little Brown Myotis hibernating solitarily in rock scree on steep, forested hillsides and beneath root wads of trees and stumps (K. Blejwas, pers. comm. 2015). Little Brown Myotis exhibit high fidelity to hibernacula (Norquay et al. 2013). A mark-recapture study in Manitoba and northwestern Ontario found only 4% of marked individuals relocated to an alternate hibernaculum within the study period (Norquay et al. 2013).

Northern Myotis

Northern Myotis may hibernate in cooler sections of a cave, compared to Little Brown Myotis (Barbour and Davis 1969). In a study of abandoned mines in northern Michigan, Northern Myotis and Little Brown Myotis co-occurred in 92% of the mines occupied by Myotis spp., but 75% of Northern Myotis individuals hibernated alone (Kurta and Smith 2014). Northern Myotis will generally return to the same hibernaculum, but not always in consecutive years (Caceres and Barclay 2000). Naughton (2012) noted that “they are loyal to a group of hibernacula rather than a single one”.

Tri-colored Bat

Tri-colored Bat is considered to have the most rigid overwintering habitat requirements of the three species. They often select the deepest part of caves or mines where temperature is the least variable, have strong humidity level preferences, and use warmer walls than other species (Fujita and Kunz 1984, Raesly and Gates 1987, Briggler and Prather 2003, Kurta and Smith 2014). A study of hibernacula in New Brunswick noted Tri-colored Bats hibernating low on the cave walls (Vanderwolf et al. 2012). Although Tri-colored Bats tend to use the same hibernacula as Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis, relatively few (i.e., ≤10) Tri-colored Bats have been recorded within any one hibernacula in Canada, possibly because they tend to hibernate solitarily (i.e., not in clusters) in the deepest sections of the caves/mines. Tri-colored Bats exhibit high fidelity to hibernacula (Sandel et al. 2001, Damm and Geluso 2008).

Summering habitat

Roosting habitat

Roosts provide thermal regulation, shelter from weather and predation, and can be sites for social interaction (Kunz 1982, Barclay and Kurta 2007). Individuals may switch roosts regularly and therefore, may use a network of roosts in a roosting area (Barclay and Brigham 1996, Sasse and Perkins 1996, Caceres and Barclay 2000). The tendency to switch roosts may depend on species, sex, age, reproductive status, and roost type (e.g., natural or anthropogenic) (Garroway and Broders 2008, Randall et al. 2014).

Roost selection is a function of numerous characteristics occurring at a range of spatial scales (Fabianek et al. 2011). For example, at the scale of the roosting structure, tree species, diameter, height, stage of decay, availability of roosting medium, sun exposure, and other characteristics may affect roost selection (Garroway and Broders 2008, Slough 2009, Poissant et al. 2010, Olson and Barclay 2013). At the stand scale, roost selection may be a function of canopy gaps, number of available snags, tree density, proximity to water, etc. (Kalcounis-Rüppell et al. 2005, Garroway and Broders 2008, Henderson and Broders 2008). At the landscape scale, characteristics such as forest age, composition, and degree of fragmentation may affect roost selection (Henderson and Broders 2008, Fabianek et al. 2011). The species may also use treed and forested habitat in urban and suburban areas for roosting, in addition to man-made structures found within urban and suburban landscapes (Little Brown Myotis, in particular).

Many bat species (including Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat) preferentially roost in older forest stands, compared to young forests (Barclay and Brigham 1996). Older forests likely provide increased snag availability for roosting (Crampton and Barclay 1996, Krusic et al. 1996) and foraging habitat under a relatively closed canopy (Jung et al. 1999).

Females generally give birth and raise pups in maternity colonies in the spring/summer. Because of roost switching behavior, a colony can be defined as an assemblage of roosting groups comprised of individuals that regularly associate and groups that intermix (Olson and Barclay 2013). Roosting in groups likely aids social thermoregulation and energy savings (Willis and Brigham 2007).

Males of all three species roost during the daytime in a variety of structures, and often switch sites during the summer. Male roosting habitat includes rock crevices, raised bark, foliage, and tree cavities (Fenton and Barclay 1980b, Caceres and Barclay 2000, Broders and Forbes 2004, Huynh 2009, Randall et al. 2014, Fabianek et al. 2015). Male Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis often roost in tall snags with large diameters in the early to middle stages of decay and located in or near small open patches within mature to over mature forest (Broders and Forbes 2004, Jung et al. 2004, Fabianek et al. 2015).

Little Brown Myotis

Little Brown Myotis is one of the few bat species that uses buildings and other anthropogenic structures (e.g., bat boxes, bridges, and barns) to roost (particularly for maternity roosting), but it will also use cavities of canopy trees, foliage, tree bark, crevices on cliffs, and other structures (Fenton and Barclay 1980b, Slough 2009, Coleman and Barclay 2011, Randall et al. 2014).

Maternity colonies may include hundreds of females with young. Females show a strong tendency to roost in large-diameter trees, although roost properties may vary significantly throughout the summer (Olson & Barclay 2013). Females are thought to select a preferred maternity roost at the expense of travelling longer distances to forage, possibly indicative of a limited number of suitable maternity roosting sites (Broders et al. 2006, Randall et al. 2014). Female Little Brown Myotis show a relatively high degree of philopatry^{footnote 6[6]} (Frick et al. 2010b). Roosting areas are generally used annually and individual natural roost sites can be used for upwards of 10 years (M. Brigham, pers. comm. 2015). Little Brown Myotis are particularly loyal to anthropogenic structures and sites may be used for 50 years or more (M. Brigham, pers. comm. 2015). They also exhibit strong within-year site fidelity to anthropogenic structures; Randall et al. (2014) found that most females using anthropogenic structures in Yukon did not switch roosts throughout the summer. Nevertheless, Little Brown Myotis have been documented switching anthropogenic sites between and within years to meet their needs (e.g., thermoregulation) (e.g., Syme et al. 2001). For example, using passive integrated transponder tags, a mix of use was documented at an anthropogenic maternity roost in Ontario; some individuals remained at the roost for several nights, others visited the roost on occasion, and many only visited the roost at night, but did not stay throughout the day, suggesting that individuals were also using other roosts in the area (D. Morningstar, unpub. data.).

Males roost individually or in small groups and periodically switch roosts. In Quebec, males switched roosts approximately every 2 days (Fabianek et al. 2015). Males use a variety of roost structures, including buildings, rock crevices, foliage, raised bark, and tree cavities (Huynh 2009, Randall et al. 2014). In New Brunswick and Quebec, male Little Brown Myotis primarily roosted in coniferous or conifer-dominated mixedwood stands with a large number of snags (Broders and Forbes 2004, Fabianek et al. 2015).

Northern Myotis

Northern Myotis roost singly or in small groups and favour tree roosts (under raised bark and in tree cavities and crevices), but they can also be found in anthropogenic structures (e.g., under shingles) (Sasse and Perkins 1996, Foster and Kurta 1999, Caceres and Barclay 2000, Carter and Feldhamer 2005).

Northern Myotis’ maternity roosts are strongly associated with forest cover, streams, and tree characteristics (e.g., species, height, diameter, age, and decay) (Caceres and Barclay 2000, Broders and Forbes 2004, Broders et al. 2006). Females prefer to roost in tall, large diameter trees in early- to mid-stages of decay (Sasse and Perkins 1996, Caceres and Barclay 2000, Silvis et al. 2015a). Maternity colonies in Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were generally in larger-than-average trees (Broders and Forbes 2004, Garroway and Broders 2008, Park and Broders 2012). In New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, female Northern Myotis primarily roosted in trees in the mid-stages of decay within mature, shade-tolerant deciduous stands (Broders and Forbes 2004, Henderson and Broders 2008). Broders and Forbes (2004) attributed this preference to these tree species’ susceptibility to limb breakage and decay (creating available habitat for roosting), long-lived characteristics (permitting repeated use by bats), and their upland habitats with increased solar radiation (reducing energy costs to maintain the bat’s body temperature). Female Northern Myotis are more likely to resort to anthropogenic structures where habitat is fragmented and few potential roost trees exist (Henderson and Broders 2008). In Nova Scotia, Northern Myotis maternity colonies consisted of females with a high degree of maternal relatedness, likely caused by female philopatry (Patriquin et al. 2013). Females switch maternity roost trees approximately every 1-5 days, but roosts are commonly clustered in roosting areas (Sasse and Perkins 1996, Caceres and Barclay 2000, Carter and Feldhamer 2005, Broders et al. 2006, Olson 2011). The largest roosting area recorded in Canada was 300 ha in Alberta (Olson 2011).

Males generally roost alone under raised bark or within cavities of trees in mid-stages of decay (Broders and Forbes 2004). In New Brunswick and Quebec, male Northern Myotis roosted in coniferous or conifer-dominated mixedwood stands within the study area (Broders and Forbes 2004, Fabianek et al. 2015). In Quebec, males switched roosts approximately every 2 days (Fabianek et al. 2015).

Tri-colored Bat

Less is known about roosts of Tri-colored Bats. Most roost sites are found within forested habitats, where this species also forages. Tri-colored Bats may roost in clumps of dead foliage and lichens (Veilleux et al. 2003, Perry and Thill 2007, Poissant et al. 2010). In Nova Scotia, 30 radio-tagged bats had roosts in large clumps of arboreal lichens (Usnea spp.) that grew on coniferous or deciduous trees relatively close to water features (Poissant et al. 2010).

Females roost alone or in small colonies. In Nova Scotia, as many as 18 Tri-colored Bats were found in a cluster (Poissant et al. 2010). In more anthropogenically-modified landscapes, maternity roosts may be barns or similar human-made structures (Fujita and Kunz 1984). In Nova Scotia, Tri-colored Bats exhibit fidelity to small (<78 ha) roosting areas within and between years (Poissant 2009). In Indiana, females returned to the same area (0.4 ha) each summer and used the same 4-6 trees each year, suggesting value in familiar (and possibly limited) structures (Veilleux and Veilleux 2004).

Males roost individually (Veilleux and Veilleux 2004, Perry and Thill 2007, Poissant 2009) . A single male tracked in Nova Scotia roosted alone in arboreal lichen (Usnea trichodea) (Poissant 2009). In Arkansas, males preferentially roosted in dead leaves of oak trees (Quercus spp.) in sites with less canopy cover, more midstory hardwoods, and more overstory large pines than randomly available (Perry and Thill 2007).

Foraging needs

Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat are insect predators and will exploit locally abundant patches of prey that may be temporally and spatially scattered. Identification of foraging areas for bats is complicated by sex biases, differences between species, seasonal variations of habitat use by females (e.g., pregnant, lactating, or non-reproducing), and foraging habitat availability and configuration (Henry et al. 2002, Owen et al. 2003, Broders et al. 2006, Randall et al. 2014).

Little Brown Myotis

Little Brown Myotis feed nocturnally on insects (e.g., moths, mayflies, flies, beetles, and caddisflies) and spiders (Moosman et al. 2012, Thomas et al. 2012, Clare et al. 2014). Nevertheless, the diet of Little Brown Myotis can vary significantly based on seasonal, geographic, and environmental factors (Moosman et al. 2012, Clare et al. 2014). On a successful night during peak summer activity, males eat approximately half of their body weight and lactating females may eat their entire body weight in insects (Anthony and Kunz 1977). Peak foraging activity occurs several hours after dusk and often again before sunrise (Fenton 1970, Kunz 1973, Broders et al. 2003). In northern areas (above 60°N) where summer night length is short, pregnant females appeared to alter their foraging behavior by exhibiting only one bout of peak activity. In addition, they foraged for fewer hours than their southerly counterparts though they compensated for reduced time foraging by exhibiting a higher rate of insect capture (Talerico 2008, Reimer 2013).

Foraging Little Brown Myotis are most often associated with open habitats, such as ponds and roads and open canopy (0-50%) forests (Segers and Broders 2014), but have also been recorded gleaning^{footnote 7[7]} prey within forests (Ratcliffe and Dawson 2003, Jung et al. 2014) and using vegetation along lake and stream margins (Fenton and Barclay 1980b). Little Brown Myotis in Yukon boreal habitat travelled 3.8 ± 0.7 km from their daytime roosts to foraging areas, with females travelling significantly farther than males (Randall et al. 2014). In Quebec, lactating females had home ranges 42% smaller (mean: 17.6 ha) than pregnant females (mean: 30.1 ha) (Henry et al. 2002).

Northern Myotis

Northern Myotis feed on insects (e.g., moths, beetles, wasps, and flies) and spiders (Lacki et al. 2009, Dodd et al. 2012, Thomas et al. 2012) that are primarily terrestrial in origin (Broders et al. 2014). Unlike Little Brown Myotis, which most often forage over water and are aerial hawkers, Northern Myotis forage more frequently along and within forests and although they feed on flying insects, they also glean prey (Caceres and Barclay 2000, Ratcliffe and Dawson 2003).

Female Northern Myotis foraged along forest-covered creeks in Prince Edward Island (Henderson and Broders 2008). In West Virginia, female Northern Myotis mainly foraged in 70-90 year-old hardwood stands with road corridors (Owen et al. 2003), and in Kentucky, Northern Myotis were found foraging along ridges and midslopes, rather than lower slopes (Lacki et al. 2009). In an intensively managed forest of West Virginia, the mean home range for lactating or pregnant Northern Myotis was 65 ha (Owen et al. 2003). In New Brunswick, Broders et al. (2006) found males and females travel significantly different distances between roost sites and foraging areas. The distance travelled by females between successive roosts was twice as far as males on average (457 m vs. 158 m) (Broders et al. 2006). The authors suggested that females travelled farther because suitable maternity sites were located in poor foraging habitat (Broders et al. 2006).

Tri-colored Bat

Similar to Little Brown Myotis, Tri-colored Bats feed on insects (e.g., flies, beetles, wasps, and moths) after dusk and before dawn using echolocation (Fujita and Kunz 1984, Naughton 2012). Each night, males consume at least half of their body weight in insects and pregnant and nursing females may eat more than their body weight (Naughton 2012).

Foraging predominately occurs in forested riparian areas, over water (e.g., ponds and rivers), and in relatively open areas (Ethier and Fahrig 2011). In Nova Scotia, Farrow and Broders (2011) found Tri-colored Bats foraging at river sites, but found more activity in areas with greater forest cover at a landscape scale, suggesting that this species may avoid landscapes that are cleared for agriculture, urban development, and forest harvesting. The distances between roost sites and foraging areas are generally unknown, but in some locations may be up to 5 km (Quinn and Broders 2007).

Migration

Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat are considered short-distance migrants, radiating annually from overwintering areas to summering areas in any direction (Fraser et al. 2012, COSEWIC 2013). In Manitoba and Ontario, Little Brown Myotis migrated regionally 35 to 554 km (median 463 km) (Fenton 1970, Dubois and Monson 2007, Norquay et al. 2013). Migratory movements by Northern Myotis are not well understood, but are likely similar to the Little Brown Myotis. Tri-colored Bat have been recorded moving 53-780 km (Griffin 1940, COSEWIC 2013). In addition, Fraser et al. (2012) found that some Tri-colored Bats engage in annual latitudinal migrations, especially those at the northern extent of the range, which may be related to their need to keep warm since they often hibernate individually (COSEWIC 2013). This is further supported by Thorne (2015), who found increased detections of Tri-colored Bats later in the season (i.e., August – September) on islands in the Great Lakes of Ontario.

As noted above, swarming sites may serve as migratory stopover locations (Fenton 1969) and are likely used annually (Rydell et al. 2014). When travelling over large waterbodies, peninsulas and islands may function as stopover sites (Dzal et al. 2009, Thorne 2015). For example, Tri-colored Bats may use Amherst Island, Lake Ontario and Long Point, Lake Erie for migration and stopover (Dzal et al. 2009, Thorne 2015).

Limiting factors

All three species are long-lived and females produce only one (Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis) or two (Tri-colored Bat) young annually. Species that are long-lived with low reproductive rates rely on high adult survival rates to maintain populations and thus increases in adult mortality rates heighten the vulnerability of these bat populations. In addition, the first year survival is low (0.23 to 0.46 for Little Brown Myotis) (Frick et al. 2010b). In a recent pre-WNS study from New Hampshire, the annual population growth rate of Little Brown Myotis over 16 years was estimated to be 1.008 (Frick et al. 2010b). In 22 subpopulations in the northeastern U.S, the population growth rate was estimated to be 0.98-1.2 (Frick et al. 2010a). Similarly, the population growth rates of Northern Myotis and Tri-colored Bat were estimated to be 1.03 and 1.04, respectively (Langwig et al. 2012). Predicted population growth rates for Little Brown Myotis in the northeastern U.S. post-WNS was 0.95 (Maslo et al. 2015).

These species are socially gregarious which increases their susceptibility to the spread of diseases (such as WNS) (Langwig et al. 2012). In some areas (e.g., Eastern Canada), these species congregate in large numbers within hibernacula, making them particularly vulnerable to disturbance events (physical or otherwise), It is unknown whether the colonial and social nature of these species creates subpopulation or colony size thresholds below which the survival or reproductive success of individuals decline and/or the population will be unable to recover.

It is also unknown if available overwintering sites with suitable microclimatic conditions are limiting in Canada.

4 Threats

4.1 Threat assessment

The Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, Tri-colored Bat threat assessments are based on the IUCN-CMP (World Conservation Union–Conservation Measures Partnership) unified threats classification system. Threats are defined as the proximate activities or processes that have caused, are causing, or may cause in the future the destruction, degradation, and/or impairment of the entity being assessed (population, species, community, or ecosystem) in the area of interest (global, national, or subnational). For these species, the threat impacts were calculated (%) for the next 10 to 15 years. These numbers further define the IUCN-CMP classification of threat impacts, which are a qualitative median rate of population reduction or area decline for each combination of scope and severity.

It is recognized that numerous knowledge gaps related to bat population-level response to specific threats exist and there is uncertainty associated with severity and scope for some of the identified threats. In areas where bat populations have significantly declined as a result of WNS, it is important to note that the additive mortality^{footnote 8[8]} of even a small number of the remaining individuals (particularly breeding adults) has the ability to impact the survival of local populations, their recovery, and, perhaps, the development of resistance to the fungus that causes WNS. Bats are long-lived species with low reproductive rates and therefore rely on high adult survival rates to maintain stable, healthy populations.

Limiting factors are not considered during this assessment process. For purposes of threat assessment, only present and future threats are considered. Historical threats, indirect or cumulative effects of the threats, or any other relevant information that would help understand the nature of the threats are presented in the Description of Threats section.

Threats for the three species of bats were assessed separately and at a national scale (Tables 2-4). Due to the large geographic range of the three bat species in Canada, the ecological differences in the overwintering behaviour of the Myotis species of bats in the west and the non-random spatial distribution of the threat themselves, it invariably follows that the impacts on bat species and local populations vary across the country. Based on these factors, it may be of value for regions and/or jurisdictions to conduct a threat calculator at a more local scale to obtain a finer resolution on the threats for management purposes.

^a Threat numbers are provided for Level 1 threats (i.e., whole numbers) and Level 2 threats (i.e., numbers with decimals).

^b Impact – The degree to which a species is observed, inferred, or suspected to be directly or indirectly threatened in the area of interest. The impact of each threat is based on severity and scope rating and considers only present and future threats. Threat impact reflects a reduction of a species population or decline/degradation of the area of an ecosystem. The calculated percentage rate of reduction of a species population is provided in addition to the qualitative median rate of population reduction or area decline. The median rate population reduction or area decline for each combination of scope and severity corresponds to the following classes of impact: Very High (75% declines), High (40 %), Medium (15%), and Low (3%). Unknown is used when impact cannot be determined (e.g., if values for either scope or severity are unknown); Not Calculated is used when threat is outside the assessment time (e.g., timing is insignificant/negligible [past threat] or low [possible threat in long term]); Negligible is used when scope or severity is negligible; Not a Threat is used when severity is scored as neutral or potential benefit.

^c Scope – Proportion of the species that can reasonably be expected to be affected by the threat within 10 years. Usually measured as a proportion of the species’ population in the area of interest. (Pervasive = 71–100%; Large = 31–70%; Restricted = 11–30%; Small = 1–10%; Negligible < 1%).

^d Severity – Within the scope, the level of damage to the species from the threat that can reasonably be expected to be affected by the threat within a 10-year or 3-generation timeframe. Usually measured as the degree of reduction of the species’ population. (Extreme = 71–100%; Serious = 31–70%; Moderate = 11–30%; Slight = 1–10%; Negligible < 1%; Neutral or Potential Benefit ≥ 0%).

^e Timing – High = continuing; Moderate = only in the future (could happen in the short term [< 10 years or 3 generations]) or now suspended (could come back in the short term); Low = only in the future (could happen in the long term) or now suspended (could come back in the long term); Insignificant/Negligible = only in the past and unlikely to return, or no direct effect but limiting.

^f Threat numbers are provided for Level 1 threats (i.e., whole numbers) and Level 2 threats (i.e., numbers with decimals).

^g Impact – The degree to which a species is observed, inferred, or suspected to be directly or indirectly threatened in the area of interest. The impact of each threat is based on severity and scope rating and considers only present and future threats. Threat impact reflects a reduction of a species population or decline/degradation of the area of an ecosystem. The calculated percentage rate of reduction of a species population is provided in addition to the qualitative median rate of population reduction or area decline. The median rate of population reduction or area decline for each combination of scope and severity corresponds to the following classes of impact: Very High (75% declines), High (40 %), Medium (15%), and Low (3%). Unknown is used when impact cannot be determined (e.g., if values for either scope or severity are unknown); Not Calculated is used when threat is outside the assessment time (e.g., timing is insignificant/negligible [past threat] or low [possible threat in long term]); Negligible is used when scope or severity is negligible; Not a Threat is used when severity is scored as neutral or potential benefit.

^h Scope – Proportion of the species that can reasonably be expected to be affected by the threat within 10 years. Usually measured as a proportion of the species’ population in the area of interest. (Pervasive = 71–100%; Large = 31–70%; Restricted = 11–30%; Small = 1–10%; Negligible < 1%).

ⁱ Severity – Within the scope, the level of damage to the species from the threat that can reasonably be expected to be affected by the threat within a 10-year or 3-generation timeframe. Usually measured as the degree of reduction of the species’ population. (Extreme = 71–100%; Serious = 31–70%; Moderate = 11–30%; Slight = 1–10%; Negligible < 1%; Neutral or Potential Benefit ≥ 0%).

^j Timing – High = continuing; Moderate = only in the future (could happen in the short term [< 10 years or 3 generations]) or now suspended (could come back in the short term); Low = only in the future (could happen in the long term) or now suspended (could come back in the long term); Insignificant/Negligible = only in the past and unlikely to return, or no direct effect but limiting.

^k Threat numbers are provided for Level 1 threats (i.e., whole numbers) and Level 2 threats (i.e., numbers with decimals).

^l Impact – The degree to which a species is observed, inferred, or suspected to be directly or indirectly threatened in the area of interest. The impact of each threat is based on severity and scope rating and considers only present and future threats. Threat impact reflects a reduction of a species population or decline/degradation of the area of an ecosystem. The calculated percentage rate of reduction of a species population is provided in addition to the qualitative median rate of population reduction or area decline. The median rate of population reduction or area decline for each combination of scope and severity corresponds to the following classes of impact: Very High (75% declines), High (40 %), Medium (15%), and Low (3%). Unknown: used when impact cannot be determined (e.g., if values for either scope or severity are unknown); Not Calculated: impact not calculated as threat is outside the assessment time (e.g., timing is insignificant/negligible [past threat] or low [possible threat in long term]); Negligible: when scope or severity is negligible; Not a Threat: when severity is scored as neutral or potential benefit.

^m Scope – Proportion of the species that can reasonably be expected to be affected by the threat within 10 years. Usually measured as a proportion of the species’ population in the area of interest. (Pervasive = 71–100%; Large = 31–70%; Restricted = 11–30%; Small = 1–10%; Negligible < 1%).

ⁿ Severity – Within the scope, the level of damage to the species from the threat that can reasonably be expected to be affected by the threat within a 10-year or 3-generation timeframe. Usually measured as the degree of reduction of the species’ population. (Extreme = 71–100%; Serious = 31–70%; Moderate = 11–30%; Slight = 1–10%; Negligible < 1%; Neutral or Potential Benefit ≥ 0%).

^o Timing – High = continuing; Moderate = only in the future (could happen in the short term [< 10 years or 3 generations]) or now suspended (could come back in the short term); Low = only in the future (could happen in the long term) or now suspended (could come back in the long term); Insignificant/Negligible = only in the past and unlikely to return, or no direct effect but limiting.

4.2 Description of threats

The overall Canada-wide threat impact for all three species is Very High to High^{footnote 9[9]}. The overall threat impact considers the cumulative impacts of multiple threats. The impacts of the threats are calculated (%) for the next 10 to 15 years. These numbers are also associated to the classes of threat impacts used by the threat classification system which represent the median rate of population reduction for each combination of scope and severity. In areas where bat populations have significantly declined as a result of WNS, it is important to note that the additive mortality of even a small number of the remaining individuals (particularly breeding adults) has the ability to impact the recovery and survival of the species. This means that even a low impact should be carefully considered to avoid further loss of individuals.

The primary threat to all three species is Invasive and other problematic species and genes – Invasive non-native/alien species (i.e., WNS). Details are discussed below under the Threat Level 1 headings which are listed here in the order they are presented in Tables 2-4. While scope, severity and impact of each threat were assessed separately for each species, the suite of threats identified is the same and are discussed in combination below.

4.2.1 Residential & commercial development

Housing & urban areas; commercial & industrial areas

Of the three species of bats, Little Brown Myotis most regularly uses buildings and bat boxes for maternity colonies. The number of bat colonies in buildings may be declining as a result of the deterioration (or demolition) of structures and attempts by landowners to exclude bats (Kunz and Reynolds 2003). Newly built structures are often constructed in ways that do not allow bat access or maternity roost establishment.

Renovations or alterations to buildings used as maternity roosts may eliminate access to the roost change the microclimate characteristics (e.g., air flow, temperature) of the roost and/or trap bats inside if alterations are performed when occupied by bats. Because females tend to show a relatively high degree of fidelity, excluding bats from previously occupied maternity roosts in anthropogenic structures would be considered habitat loss, particularly when alternative roosting sites in the area do not exist. Similarly, habitat loss would occur if a previously occupied bat box is removed from a site.

The effects of roost exclusion may depend on the availability of other suitable habitat, timing, bat species, bat sex, and other factors. Roost exclusions may lower reproductive success (especially if exclusion occurs while occupied), alter home range size, change mean colony size, and decrease site fidelity (Brigham and Fenton 1986, Neilson and Fenton 1994, Borkin et al. 2011, Chaverri and Kunz 2011). Little Brown Myotis may abandon roosting areas after being excluded from roost sites (Neilson and Fenton 1994).

Little Brown Myotis maternity roosts are often found in buildings in Canada (Canadian Wildlife Federation 2018). The scope represents only the anticipated proportion of all Little Brown Myotis whose roosts or foraging areas are likely to be impacted by development over the next 10-15 years, which is thought to be small. The severity reflects the anticipated average impact across all affected bats of loss of a roost. In some individual colonies, the impact may be quite severe (e.g., if a maternity roost is destroyed when there are young or adults in the building or there are no alternative roosts available), but, in other cases, the bats may be able to switch to another roost site, with minimal long-term impact, although it is recognized that new housing developments tend not to create suitable roosting habitat for bats to replace roosts lost in upgrades. Overall, across all situations where bats may be impacted, the average impact is unlikely to exceed 30% loss of the population for affected bats over the next 10-15 years and would usually average lower (especially given that situations of deliberate exclusion are not included here, but, rather, under threat 5.1).

Northern Myotis and Tri-colored Bat rarely use anthropogenic structures for establishing maternity roosts and this aspect of the threat is not a concern for these species. However, urban/residential and commercial/industrial development also results in the removal, degradation, and fragmentation of foraging and natural roosting habitat (e.g., forests, wetlands and riparian areas). Impacts of urban expansion and residential development are thought to have a negligible impact on Northern Myotis. In contrast, urban development may be a particularly important consideration for theTri-colored Bat whose more restricted range in Canada overlaps highly-populated areas, including southern Ontario. Ontario’s population is expected to grow by 30%, or almost 4.2 million people, by 2041; most growth is expected in the southern region of the province with the Greater Toronto Area being the fastest growing region of the province (Ontario Ministry of Finance 2016). The impact of commercial and industrial areas on Northern Myotis and Tri-colored Bat species is Negligible, whereas the impact on Little Brown Myotis is likely to result in a 0.1 – 3% population decline.

Tourism & recreation areas

Modifications for tourists (e.g., observation platforms) or the erection of physical barriers (e.g., gates) can cause restricted or altered airflow or modify other microclimatic characteristics of the hibernaculum (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007). A well-known cave system in Ontario, which was used as a hibernaculum by these three species of bats (Fenton 1969, Thomas et al. 1979), underwent extensive modifications (e.g., lighting, gates/doors at entrances, paved stairways and floor) to turn it into a commercial tourist attraction (Petrick 2015).

Gates are often considered the most efficient and effective technique to control human access to hibernacula, but even so-called bat-friendly gating may cause bats to avoid the hibernaculum, collide with the gate, or cause significant changes in bat behaviour (Spanjer and Fenton 2005, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007, Derusseau and Huntly 2012, Diamond and Diamond 2014). Gating should be completed using well-supported designs in conjunction with bat monitoring to ensure no negative impacts to bats.

Sealing or blocking the entrance to a hibernaculum can represent a potentially significant source of habitat loss. For example, when a hibernaculum in Kentucky was blocked by a new gift shop, thousands of Indiana Bats (Myotis sodalis) clung to the walls of the building, rather than search for an alternative hibernaculum (Murphy 1987). Even blockages of small entrances can alter airflow patterns and change internal temperatures (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007).

Only a small proportion (<1%) of the population of each of the three bats species is likely to be affected. Severity can be extreme if development causes disturbance to an active hibernaculum, but given increasing public awareness and education related to bats and the potential for mitigation (e.g., seasonal closures during hibernation season), this would likely be rare. As such, across all future developments, average severity is likely to be much lower, but a broad range has been retained to reflect potential impacts if development happens without mitigation. This category does not include disturbance related to recreational activities in undeveloped caves which is captured under threat 6.1.

4.2.2 Agriculture & aquaculture

Annual & perennial non-timber crops

The removal, degradation, and fragmentation of foraging and natural roosting habitat (e.g., forests, wetlands and riparian areas) can be caused by a variety of anthropogenic sources, including through direct conversion for agricultural use and intensification of agricultural practices. While the rate of agricultural expansion (i.e., conversion of natural habitats to agricultural use) has decreased over the last few decades, a concomitant shift to the intensification of management on land already under agricultural use has occurred (Matson et al. 1997). Intensification of agriculture includes trends such as increased mechanization and use of irrigation, increased field size, planting of high-yield crop varieties (e.g., cereal monocultures) and increased chemical use - all at the expense of woodlots, hedgerows, farm ponds and other marginal habitat from an agronomic point of view (Matson et al. 1997, Bélanger and Grenier 2002, Mineau and Whiteside 2013). These intensively managed agricultural systems result in an overall reduction of biodiversity (Matson et al. 1997).

Historical wetland loss in Canada is estimated at approximately 70% within settled areas, with draining for agriculture accounting for the majority (85%) of known conversions (Haak 2008). Wetlands and areas around waterbodies (e.g., riparian areas and forest edges) are important foraging habitat for Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis and Tri-colored Bat. Activities that degrade or remove wetlands have the potential to have negative impacts to foraging habitat availability and quality. Wetland loss in southern Ontario, where all three species occur, has been extensive and continues (additional losses of 3.5% between 1982 and 2002) (Federal Provincial and Territorial Governments of Canada 2010). Within the range of Little Brown Myotis, estimates of wetland losses in the Prairie Pothole region of Canada vary between 40 to 71% (Federal Provincial and Territorial Governments of Canada 2010). Wetland loss and degradation continues within this region mainly due to agricultural intensification.

Land conversion has been intensive in some portions of these species ranges. For example, 73% of the boreal hardwood transition zone in Saskatchewan has been converted to agriculture, with 25% lost between 1966 and 1994 (Hobson et al. 2002). Young et al. (2006) calculated an annual rate of change in forest cover along the southern boreal edge of Alberta to be -0.82% per year. It is estimated that 70% of the woodlands in the St. Lawrence Valley have been removed, primarily in southwestern Quebec and southern Ontario (Freemark and Merriam 1986).

In agriculturally-dominated landscapes, some species follow linear forest features for commuting and foraging (Henderson and Broders 2008). Northern Myotis traveled following a hedgerow of trees in a agriculturally-dominated landscape in Prince Edward Island (Henderson and Broders 2008). Myotis spp. and Tri-colored Bat were not directly observed using open areas (such as cultivated and fallow fields and golf courses) in Quebec, but were active in the wooded areas adjoining these features (Fabianek et al. 2011). Agricultural intensification that removes hedgerows and field margins could be reducing foraging and commuting habitat (Wickramasinghe et al. 2003).

When agricultural activities occur nearby hibernacula  they can cause, exacerbate, or accelerate blockages of airflow, create changes to hydrology or microclimatic conditions, potentially cause flooding, or directly degrade the habitat (McAlpine 1983, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007).

However, in some areas of eastern Canada, reversion of agricultural land to forest may partially offset loss from intensification/ conversion. A significant proportion of the population of each of the three species lives or forages in areas where some agricultural impacts are anticipated, but given current environmental legislation protecting wetlands (which can be particularly important for foraging), that most agricultural impacts only result in partial loss of habitat in an area, and that most populations probably are not currently habitat limited, the average impact across all affected populations is likely to vary between 0.1–3%.

Additional threats associated with agriculture, that are evaluated in other categories, include impacts of agricultural chemicals such as pesticides (listed under 9.3) and risk of spreading diseases such as White Nose Syndrome through use of bat guano as a fertilizer (listed under threat 8.1).

4.2.3 Energy production & mining

Oil & gas drilling

Industrial activities, such as quarrying, mining (exploration and development) and oil and gas (exploration and development) outside of hibernacula can cause, exacerbate, or accelerate blockages of airflow, create changes to hydrology or microclimatic conditions, potentially cause flooding, or directly degrade the habitat (McAlpine 1983, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007). Mine or cave entrances may collapse if heavy machinery is used near weak areas of the hibernaculum (McAlpine 1983, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007). Once bats are blocked from entry, the hibernaculum can no longer be used.

Oil and gas exploration and development, through the creation of well pads and narrow linear seismic lines can remove natural habitat cover but can also create edge habitat that could be used for foraging and commuting by the three bat species. This is likely to affect only a small portion of the population of each of the three species, and is likely to have little or no population level impacts.

Mining & quarrying

According to the Mining Association of Canada Facts and Figures report (2016), several new mines are expected to be in operation this year in Canada (Marshall 2016). Rehabilitation activities (e.g., backfilling, removal of head frames) at old mine sites can affect the suitability of hibernacula and disturb the bats using them if activities are carried out during hibernation period. Conversely, the decommissioning of active or semi-active mines (e.g., shutting off water pumps) can result in flooding of hibernacula. Mining companies may reactivate previously abandoned mines for extraction purposes as a result of fluctuations in mineral prices, but there is little information on the frequency of this practice in Canada. The prevalence is assumed to be low, but may be a concern for particular areas of the country.

Many of the known hibernacula in Canada, particularly in the east, are in abandoned mines. While this is the case, it should be noted that mines are one of the first places to look for bats and that most hibernacula across Canada likely remain unknown, particularly in the west. The scope is difficult to predict because activity is tied to commodity prices which are volatile. Given that a proportion of each of the three species use mines for hibernacula, there is a possibility that over 10% of the population could be affected by new mining activity in the next 10–15 years, although it may also be much lower. However, with appropriate provincial/ territorial/ federal legislation/ regulations to protect bats, it is likely that most impacts will be mitigated (e.g., by avoiding activities in areas of mines where bats are hibernating, creation of alternative suitable sites in active mines, and/or sealing mine shafts in a bat friendly manner). As a result, while severe impacts may sometimes happen to an individual colony, average impacts across all affected colonies will be much lower. Oil sands development is also included in this category, but likely to affect <1% of the population and the primary impact will be loss of habitat, which is partially mitigated by restoration. Noise and vibration are captured in threat 9.6, while mining effluent is covered under threat 9.2.

Renewable energy

Bats can be killed either through direct collisions with turbine blades (Horn et al. 2008) or barotrauma caused by the sudden drop in air pressure behind the blades (Baerwald et al. 2008, Grodsky et al. 2011, Rollins et al. 2012). Wind turbines represent one of the largest sources of anthropogenic mortality documented for bats (Cryan and Brown 2007, Cryan 2011, O'Shea et al. 2016; Zimmerling and Francis 2016). Results from mortality studies at various sites in the United States and Europe suggest that annual bat mortality ranges from 0 to over 50 deaths per turbine, but data collection protocols, experimental design, and analysis methods varied substantially among wind farms (Kunz et al. 2007, Arnett et al. 2008, Cryan 2011, Hayes 2013, Smallwood 2013).

Within Canada, impacts of wind energy development can vary substantially across the ranges of the species. At one wind power facility in Ontario, bat mortality was dominated by Little Brown Myotis; this species accounted for 46% of all bat mortality in July and 38% over the period of April to September (OMNRF, unpublished data). At a wind power facility in British Columbia, Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis comprised 44% of all bat mortalities recorded with most fatalities occurring in July and August (Hemmera 2011).

Using data pre- and post-WNS from 64 wind farms across Canada, it is estimated that 15.5 ± 3.8 bats per turbine are killed annually (Zimmerling and Francis 2016). Based on 4019 installed turbines (the number installed in Canada as of December 2013), an estimated 47,400 bats are killed per year (95% C.I.^{footnote 10[10]} 32,100 – 62,700) (Zimmerling and Francis 2016). Little Brown Myotis accounted for 13% of all documented bat mortalities from wind turbines (approximately 6,000 individuals), with most (87%) mortality occurring in Ontario (Zimmerling and Francis 2016). Northern Myotis and Tri-colored bat accounted for 0.01% of all documented mortality from wind turbines in Canada (Zimmerling and Francis 2016).

It is unknown if Northern Myotis and Tri-colored Bat are less vulnerable to impacts from wind turbines because of differences in flight, foraging behavior, or habitat, or if they simply have smaller populations and are therefore generally uncommon around wind farms. Nevertheless, even low rates of mortality have the potential to be biologically significant for relatively rare species; it is possible that future wind farms, if inadvertently located near important concentration areas such as along migration routes or near maternity roosts, swarming sites or hibernacula, could cause high mortality. In WNS affected areas, the biological significance of any mortality has the potential to impact the ability of local populations to recover and/or develop resistance to the fungus. Mortality rates are anticipated to increase as the number of turbines increase.

Presently, mitigation measures to reduce overall bat mortality related to wind turbine development may include the feathering of wind turbine blades or increasing the cut-in speed when the risk to bats is particularly high (e.g., at night during peak migration) (Baerwald et al. 2009). Baerwald et al. (2009) demonstrated that these mitigation techniques reduced bat fatalities by approximately 60% at a site in southwestern Alberta. Arnett et al. (2009, 2013b) found that increasing the speed at which the turbine starts to rotate and generate power reduced bat mortalities by approximately 73% (range 44% to 93%) at a wind farm in Pennsylvania with a marginal (~1%) loss in annual power. However, recent research suggests that increasing the cut-in speed to 5.5 m/sec may not be effective at mitigating Myotis mortality (Zimmerling et al. 2016). Smart curtailment is a general term referring to any curtailment strategy that relies on more variables than the local wind speeds to determine optimal periods of curtailment to minimize potential impacts to a target species, or species group. A recent study (Sutter et al. 2016) on the U.S. mainland demonstrated that some smart curtailment systems are effective in reducing fatalities of Little Brown Myotis by as much as 90% when combined with feathering below the cut-in speed. A combination of real-time exposure (bat activity at the hub) as determined through the use of ultrasonic detectors and real-time weather data from the meteorological tower was used to identify when there was a high risk of fatalities, and turbines were curtailed so that they had a rotation of less than 2 rpms only when this risk was high.  The use of ultrasonic broadcasts may also reduce bat fatalities at wind turbines by deterring bats from approaching the sound source (Arnett et al. 2013a), but their effectiveness at reducing Myotis mortality has not been rigorously assessed. In some circumstances, operational mitigation techniques may include the periodic shutdown of select turbines during the highest risk periods.

Scope is based on proportion of bats that are within 450 km of existing or anticipated wind turbines over the next 10 years, based on the average distance (450 km) that Little Brown Myotis migrate from maternity sites to hibernacula based on telemetry studies. Similar values have been reported for Tri-colored Bat. Although there are few data for Northern Myotis, there seasonal movements are likely similar to Little Brown Myois. Severity considers that, based on Zimmerling & Francis (2016), up to 1.4%/year of the Little Brown Myotis population may be killed, which could increase to 5%/year over the next 15-30 years with projected growth in number of turbines (much less severity is predicted for Northern Myotis and Tri-colored Bat). However, there is considerable uncertainty in that estimate, due to uncertainty in the starting population sizes. There is also uncertainty as to the extent to which this mortality would be additive (reducing the population) versus compensatory (offsetting other sources of mortality). Given that adult Little Brown Myotis normally have relatively high survival rates (80-90%), a substantial portion of this mortality could be additive. If totally additive, this could have an impact up to a 44% reduction in populations over 15 years (and higher over 30 years). However, some is likely compensatory, so the actual impact may be lower, hence the uncertainty range. The solar component of this threat is likely to be a negligible scope over next 10 years, with low severity, but it is acknowledged that this is an emerging threat that is difficult to predict.

4.2.4 Transportation & service corridors

Road & railroads

Roads can pose a risk to bat populations through direct mortality from collisions with vehicles as well as through changes to habitat. Seasonal timing, surrounding habitat, and level of vehicular traffic affect the number of collisions with vehicles (Lesiński et al. 2011, Medinas et al. 2013). Many bat species forage in edge habitat such as those provided along roads (Grindal 1996) and Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis will often use roads for commuting (Limpens et al. 1989). Mortality rates are highest near roosts and active foraging areas (Medinas et al. 2013) and low-flying species, such as Northern Myotis and Tri-colored Bat, appear to be more vulnerable (Abbott et al. 2015, Fensome and Mathews 2016). A review of the information available for European bat species showed juvenile bats at a higher risk of direct mortality from vehicles than adults, and that males were more at risk than females (Fensome and Mathews 2016). The authors suggest young bats may be more at risk because they are less experienced and maneuverable flyers than adults, and that males tend to disperse greater distances than females, putting them in contact with roads more often (Fensome and Mathews 2016).

Russell et al. (2009) found that Little Brown Myotis crossed roads at the canopy level when forest was available but where canopy cover was low (<6 m), bats crossed the road lower and closer to traffic; when crossing open fields, bats travelled less than 2 m above the ground. They collected 27 road-killed Little Brown Myotis between May and September at their study site which encompassed a travel route from a maternity colony to a nearby foraging area. There are also anecdotal reports of bats colliding with non_traditional/recreational vehicles and devices, such as water crafts (e.g., boats, personal watercrafts, and wind surfers), fishing lines, and all-terrain vehicles. There is no information available on the number of bats killed by collisions with vehicles in Canada and carcasses are often difficult to find or are removed by predators before they can be accounted for.

Roads can also act as barriers to bats by restricting movements between habitats and changing habitat use (Abbott et al. 2012, Bennett and Zurcher 2013, Kitzes and Merenlender 2014, Abbott et al. 2015, Fensome and Mathews 2016). Where canopy cover was lacking nearby the highway, fewer bats were observed crossing the road (Russell et al. 2009). Major roads appear to constrain movement more than secondary roads (Fensome and Mathews 2016) though there is little information available related to how individual species interact with roads.

The high scope reflects the fact that most Little Brown Myotis and Tri-colored Bats, and to a lesser extent Northern Myotis likely encounter roads at some point in their life. The severity represents the fact that there may be significant local impacts, but across all individuals encountering roads, average impacts to the population are probably less than 1%.

Utility & service lines

Utility and service lines, such as hydro corridors and seismic lines, can create forest-edge habitat that affords both foraging and commuting opportunities to bats, in addition to protection from wind and predators. However, there is evidence that bat activity decreases with increasing distance from the tree line into the open area. Verboom and Spoelstra (1999) found Pipistrelle Bat (Pipistrelle pipistrelle) activity decreased further from the tree line (up to 50 m). A study investigating edge use and patches of residual  trees use in harvested boreal forests showed Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis were least active within the centre of cutblocks, up to a distance of 30 m from any edge (Hogberg et al. 2002). It has been suggested that the use of open areas by vespertilionid bats is constrained by the absence of vertical elements that can be used as landmarks (Verboom and Spoelstra 1999). It may also be related to exposure to predation risk and wind. It is possible that utility and service lines that have a wide swath of open area associated with them may alter bat movement and foraging behaviour, though additional study on this is needed. The scope assumes that relatively few bat populations will be negatively impacted by these activities. The severity reflects the possibility that there may be impacts on affected populations, but also the possibility these impacts could be negligible.

4.2.5 Biological resource use

Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals

Some species of bats, including Little Brown Myotis, often use anthropogenic structures as maternity roosts or hibernacula. Noise, the accumulation of feces (guano), and fears of contracting histoplasmosis^{footnote 11[11]} and rabies may cause maternity colonies of bats to be exterminated. Approaches to eliminate bats from buildings may include: physical exclusion (e.g., sealing openings), chemical control, electronic control (e.g., lights and ultrasonic devices) and killing or relocating individuals (Kunz and Reynolds 2003). Few data are available to determine the prevalence and impact of maternity colony removals; most data are anecdotal because not all jurisdictions have reporting requirements for nuisance wildlife control companies (COSEWIC 2013). Sealing the entrance(s) of an occupied maternity roost will most likely result in the death of all individuals inside the roost site. Some maternity colonies may contain most of the breeding females and offspring within a large area, so colony removal can have a significant impact on local populations.

Intentional harm to individuals within hibernacula has also been reported. For example, all bats (~800 Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis) were removed for incineration from the only known hibernaculum of Northern Myotis on Prince Edward Island in 1989 (Brown et al. 2007). Although the bats were rescued from incineration, attempts to keep them over winter failed and they all perished (Brown et al. 2007).

Some provinces and territories have taken measures to reduce the risk of intentional harm. For example, New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources has removed these species from the list of nuisance wildlife under the New Brunswick Fish amd Wildlife Act, thereby providing support for non-lethal alternatives in their management. Saskatchewan’s removal of all Chiroptera from the list of unprotected wildlife under The Wildlife Amendment Regulation 2013 protects bats from all harm, providing support for non-lethal alternatives in their management. See section 2: Species Status Information for more legislation protecting individuals.

The impact of this threat on Northern Myotis and Tri-colored Bat is considered Negligible because they rarely establish maternity colonies in human structures.

The impact of this threat is of greater importance to Little Brown Myotis because they routinely establish maternity colonies in human structures. However, only a small proportion of the total population (< 10%) is likely to be evicted over the next 10-15 years. The impacts on individual colonies that are evicted can sometimes be quite severe (e.g., if most adults or young are killed). However, some forms of eviction practices are bat-friendly, and LBM are often able to find alternative roosts if roosts are sealed when bats are absent. With increased education, outreach and regulations protecting bats, the proportion of exclusions resulting in mortality should decrease. Thus, the average impact across all exclusions is unlikely to exceed 30% of affected populations.

Logging & wood harvesting

The removal, degradation, and fragmentation of foraging and roosting habitat (e.g., forests, wetlands and riparian areas) can be caused by a variety of anthropogenic sources, including forestry harvesting. For example, forestry and timber harvesting operations (e.g., salvage logging) may remove tracts of mature forests, as well as individual snags that may be used by male and female bats for roosting.

Activities that result in the removal of trees or forested landscapes have the potential to destroy or degrade natural roosts (maternity and day roosts) for all three bat species. The effects of roost tree removal may depend on the availability of other suitable habitat, timing, bat species, bat sex, and other factors. Roost removal may alter home range size, change mean colony size, and increase travel distances resulting in increased energetic costs (Borkin et al. 2011, Chaverri and Kunz 2011). Depending on habitat availability, bats may use another tree for roosting if a previous maternity roost is removed outside the breeding season (Silvis et al. 2015b). For Northern Myotis maternity roosts in Kentucky, the number of roosts, roost site characteristics, and overall space used did not change after single highly-used roosts and 24% of secondary roosts were experimentally removed prior to the breeding season (Silvis et al. 2015b). However, the distances bats moved between sequential maternity roosts doubled within areas where secondary roosts were removed (Silvis et al. 2015b). Nevertheless, Silvis et al. (2015b) noted that tolerance limits of maternity roost loss may be influenced by local forest conditions and the social / behavioral characteristics of the species using the roost. 

The scope reflects the fact that only some of the population of Little Brown Myotis uses forests as roosts (many now roost in houses) and that over the next 10-15 years, no more than 3-7% of forested lands in Canada are likely to be harvested (Natural Resources Canada 2018). In contrast, most of the population of Northern Myotis and Tri-colored Bat use forests as roosts.  In terms of severity, within areas that are logged, many bats may be able to find alternative roosts, but some could be killed if logging happens when trees are occupied. In some areas, loss of trees with cavities could limit availability of natural maternity roosts. This may be more likely in areas where forestry is focused on old growth forests that are more likely to have cavities suitable for bats. Clear cuts may also result in some loss of foraging areas, at least until they partially regenerate. Impacts on local populations could potentially be high, but average impacts in affected areas are likely to be lower, especially with appropriate mitigation (e.g., avoiding logging older trees during the breeding season). 

Fishing & harvesting aquatic resources

Though not documented in the literature, there are reports of anglers catching bats on fishing hooks. Little Brown Myotis and Tri-colored Bat often forage over water and this behaviour may increase their vulnerability to being caught on fishing lines. Fly-fishing may be of particular concern since the lure mimics a flying and/or dead insect. There are also reports of Little Brown Myotis colliding with the fishing line itself while foraging low over the water. The proportion of Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis and Tri-colored Bat foraging in areas and at times where they encounter fishermen is likely to be small, and even if a few bats are killed, this is likely to have a negligible effect on populations.

4.2.6 Human intrusions & disturbance

Recreational activities

Visitation by people (Thomas 1995) or handling of hibernating bats can result in arousal from torpor (Speakman et al. 1991). When in deep torpor, bats are generally unaffected by ambient noise (Harrison 1965), but some individuals may respond to noise and light, arouse from torpor, and begin to fly (Thomas 1995). These individuals can then cause a cascade of arousals in nearby bats, resulting from their tactile activities (e.g., attempted copulation, rejoining the cluster of bats) (Thomas 1995). Even non-intrusive visitations can cause severe fat consumption (premature energy depletion), starvation, reduced energy reserves for reproduction, and death (Gaisler et al. 1981, Boyles and Brack 2009, Olson et al. 2011). The population of Little Brown Myotis significantly increased in an Alberta cave after winter and autumn access was restricted to reduce disturbance during hibernation and swarming (Olson et al. 2011). Disturbance tolerance is related to the length of winter and number and rate of visits; repeated visits over several consecutive days have the most severe impacts (Boyles and Brack 2009). Because bats with WNS have more frequent arousal episodes (Reeder et al. 2012), the additive effect of human-caused arousals within WNS-affected hibernacula may be significant.

Tourists, spelunkers, recreational users, and researchers are the main visitors to hibernacula. Visitation in the summer (when most occur) likely has less direct impact on bats because the site is not being used or bats can replenish fat reserves. To minimize visitation, year-round gates have been installed at some hibernacula, spelunking societies have posted guidelines (e.g., Manitoba Speleological Society) (SSM 2015), and bat researchers have minimized the number and duration of their visits. However, overall most hibernacula are not in areas that are regularly visited by people, many are inaccessible to people, and most visits are likely in the summer, outside the hibernation season. There are some examples of caves where numbers have remained stable and bats have shown tolerance to visitation despite regular disturbance while other examples of declines and/or complete abandonment. Most hibernacula are unlikely to be disturbed by tourists when bats are present (i.e., during the hibernation season) over the next 10-15 years (especially given growing awareness of conservation needs for bats). Among visited caves, impacts may sometimes be severe but, on average, will probably be much lower.

Work & other activities

This threat considers potential impacts of research activities, including collections of individuals, on bat populations. Some past research activities (e.g., banding and research in hibernacula) have been detrimental to bats. Some impacts could be incidental to other types of research happening within areas used by bats (e.g., research on other aspects of caves). With increasing awareness of bat conservation concerns, most bat/cave researchers should be aware of risks of disturbance during hibernation, as well as risks of transmitting White Nose Syndrome, taking appropriate precautions such as decontamination protocols. For research targeting bats, the need to obtain permits and animal care approvals for proposed protocols should reduce the risk of negative impacts. Some research may also lead to improved management of bats, which can have a net benefit, offsetting any impacts to individuals. Overall, in Canada, research is likely to affect a negligible proportion of the national population. Although some studies may have an impact on a local population, on average, across all studies over the next 10-15 years, the impacts of research on populations is likely to be slight to negligible.

4.2.7 Natural system modifications

Fire and fire suppression

Fires differ in their intensity, frequency and extent and in turn shape the resulting availability of habitat (configuration, composition and successional stage) and abundance and distribution of associated wildlife species. As fire increases the heterogeneity of forested landscapes, an increase in the diversity of available habitat for bats is also expected (Fule et al. 2004, Boyles and Aubrey 2006). Early successional forest stages following burns can provide important areas for foraging while older forests continue to be important for roosting (Loeb and O'Keefe 2011). Fire initially results in an increase of dead and dying trees, an increase of light availability and reduction of canopy and sub-canopy tree density – all characteristics which may be beneficial to cavity-roosting bats (Boyles and Aubrey 2006). Forest bat species are presumably well-adapted to dynamic and spatially complex mosaics and presumably have evolved roosting strategies to limit their vulnerability to fire (Carter et al. 2002, Loeb and O'Keefe 2011).

Some studies have shown increases in insect abundance following fire that could increase bat foraging opportunities (Buchalski et al. 2013). Reduction in sub-canopy vegetation can also provide favorable foraging habitat. Fire may also provide roosting habitat in the form of dead and dying trees, though standing snags may also be removed. In forests managed by prescribed burns in Missouri, the number of roosting sites for Evening Bats (Nycticeius humeralis), which roost in tree cavities, increased (Boyles and Aubrey 2006). A study in Kentucky showed Northern Myotis to be tolerant of prescribed fire; the bats responded to fire by shifting foraging locations and roost selection (Lacki et al. 2009).

Spring burns have the potential to disturb bats when maternity colonies are being established, particularly when non-volant young are present. However, bats may be capable of escaping tree roosts before exposure to heat and gases/smoke occurs (Rodrigue et al. 2001, Dickenson et al. 2009), although this may not always be possible. High temperatures along the leading of a fire can pose a risk to bats through direct burning and ear damage (Dickenson et al. 2009). Fires that are particularly intense and fast-moving, such as predicted with climate change, pose a greater risk.

On average, the actual area of forest burned each year in Canada exceeds the area logged, but not necessarily as often in areas with high densities of bats (Natural Resource Canada 2018). Thus, over a 10-15 year period, no more than 1-10% of the population may be affected by burns. While severe fires may sometimes cause a moderate impact to affected local populations, on average across all burns over this time period, the severity is likely to be much lower.

Dams & water management/use

The removal, degradation, and fragmentation of foraging and roosting habitat (e.g., forests, wetlands and riparian areas) can be caused by a variety of anthropogenic sources, including dams and the associated changes in water flow patterns. Large areas of bat habitat may be deforested and flooded during dam construction and activation; any hibernacula in the flood zone will become submerged and unusable. Changes to water flow patterns could exacerbate, or accelerate blockages of airflow, create changes to the hydrology or microclimatic conditions within hibernacula, cause flooding, or directly degrade the habitat (McAlpine 1983, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007). A study in Europe found a decline in bat activity over the area submerged by a large dam construction project while activity increased in the area surrounding the reservoir (suggesting displacement) (Rebelo and Rainho 2009).

At least two new large dams are anticipated in the next ten years, which could impact bat habitat. Flooding in winter could potentially kill bats in hibernacula, while summer flooding could potentially impact maternity roosts. Overall, these projects are likely to impact a negligible proportion of the total population (based on known projects), but within these areas, severity could be extreme for large projects, though much lower for small projects. Averaged across affected populations, a severity of serious to extreme is expected.

4.2.8 Invasive & other problematic species & genes

Invasive non-native/alien species – White-nose Syndrome

White-nose syndrome (WNS), caused by the dermatophyte^{footnote 12[12]} fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans (formerly called Geomyces destructans), is the greatest threat to the survival and recovery of Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat. Most of the known hibernacula in the northeastern United States and eastern Canada (except in Newfoundland and Labrador) have experienced massive declines resulting from WNS (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2016).

Pseudogymnoascus destructans is found widely throughout Europe and the Palearctic, including in Northeastern China (Martínková et al. 2010, Wibbelt et al. 2010, Puechmaille et al. 2011, Hoyt et al. 2016, Zukal et al. 2016). The North American strain of the fungus is believed to have originated in Europe (Lindner et al. 2011, Pikula et al. 2012, Ren et al. 2012, Warnecke et al. 2012, Leopardi et al. 2015) and was first detected in the U.S. in 2006 (Lorch et al. 2011) and in Canada in 2010 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2018). The fungus grows in the same microclimate conditions that occur within hibernacula where the three species of bats overwinter. Once introduced into a bat hibernaculum, P. destructans is capable of environmental growth, without requiring the presence of bats; consequently it is believed that the fungus can remain viable in abandoned hibernacula for decades (Reynolds et al. 2015, Ballmann et al. 2017). Moreover the spores of P. destructans can remain viable in a wide range of environmental conditions for long periods of time (Hoyt et al. 2015b). The ability of the spores to remain viable in the soil, guano and on the walls of hibernacula may potentially impede recovery of these species (Langwig et al. 2012, Hoyt et al. 2014).

The fungus colonizes the bat’s skin, causes erosions of the epidermis, and damages sweat glands, oil-producing glands, muscles, connective tissue, blood vessels, and hair follicles (Meteyer et al. 2009, Cryan et al. 2010). The wings and ears develop white-grey blotches on their surfaces and the muzzle often turns fuzzy white.

The early stages of WNS may not be visible in all affected individuals. WNS is characterized by an elevated metabolic rate associated with the epidermal fungal growth, stimulating hyperventilation, and results in increased arousals from torpor that contribute to dehydration and electrolyte loss (Warnecke et al. 2012, Warnecke et al. 2013, Verant et al. 2014). Later stages of WNS are associated with more extensive and severe tissue lesions, further increasing arousal frequency, water loss, and energy use (Warnecke et al. 2012, Warnecke et al. 2013, Verant et al. 2014). Energy reserve depletion is accelerated by reduced torpor bout lengths and through acute physiological changes as WNS pathology progresses, eventually leading to mortality (Frank et al. 2014, Verant et al. 2014). WNS-infected bats are more likely to fly (and fly erratically) during winter (Carr et al. 2014). Bats that survive until spring may have damaged wings with numerous holes, and may exhibit signs of physiological stress, and reduced reproductive success (Reeder and Turner 2008, Meteyer et al. 2009, Reichard and Kunz 2009, Powers et al. 2012). However, almost all of the identified mortality associated with WNS has been during hibernation when the immune functions of bats are reduced (Cryan et al. 2010). Additionally, Fuller et al. (2011) tracked individual Little Brown Myotis and found wing damage caused by WNS healed to some degree throughout the summer. Prevalence decreases during the summer months, likely as a result of body temperatures above that required for P. destructans (Langwig et al. 2015b).

In eastern Canada and the northeastern United States, WNS mortality rates are typically low (i.e., 20%) in the first year of detection, followed by high levels (i.e., >70%) within two years (Frick et al. 2010a). At known hibernacula in eastern Canada, the number of hibernating Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis bats has declined by an estimated 94% (COSEWIC 2013). The number of Tri-colored Bats has also shown a precipitous decline of approximately 75% at known hibernacula (Turner et al. 2011, COSEWIC 2013).

Rate of spread

From the epicenter in Albany, New York, the rate of spread of WNS in Canada has been approximately 200 to 250 km per year (COSEWIC 2013). As of 29 May 2018, WNS was recorded in 32 states and 7 provinces; the presence of P. destructans was confirmed in 2 additional states (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2018) (Figure 1; Table 1). This represents approximately 21% of the Canadian range of Little Brown Myotis, 30% of Northern Myotis and 100% of Tri-colored Bat that have been impacted by WNS (Figures 1-3). Additional sites are being detected each year in Canada, with the most recent (i.e., 2018) western detection of P. destructans in Manitoba, in the Lake St. George area (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2018). WNS was confirmed in Washington State in March 2016, approximately 150 km from the Canadian border, and represents an approximately 2100 km jump from the previously-known westernmost detection of the fungus (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2018). It is possible that the fungus went unnoticed for several years and suggests caution in defining areas as not yet affected by WNS.

It is uncertain if WNS has spread to Labrador, as well as the northern-most parts of Ontario and Quebec because there is limited information related to the location and characteristics of hibernacula in these regions. To date, testing of a few known hibernacula on the island of Newfoundland has not been positive for Pd though WNS has been confirmed in three individual Little Brown Myotis in western Newfoundland (S. Pardy-Moores, pers. comm. 2018). The Côte-Nord region of Quebec is also currently believed to be WNS-free.

Transmission

Transmission occurs as a result of bat-to-bat contact and contact with contaminated hibernacula, as well as human-assisted mechanisms (e.g., tourists, spelunkers, and researchers that do not follow proper decontamination protocols) (Lorch et al. 2011, Lorch et al. 2013). While it is believed that the spores are spread primarily from bat to bat, the role of environmental factors in its dispersal is not yet well understood. (Puechmaille et al. 2011, Lorch et al. 2013). The amount of physical contact among hibernating bats varies by species, and does not correlate well with infection rates (Kilpatrick 2013, Langwig et al. 2015b). Transmission of P. destructans does not appear to be associated with winter colony sizes or influx of susceptible individuals after the mating season (Langwig et al. 2015b). Until there is a better understanding of the relationship of the environmental persistence of P. destructans and the dynamics behind its spread, factors which exacerbate its spread should be addressed, specifically human activities which could be contributing to its distribution (Shelley et al. 2013).

Accumulations of guano in caves have been identified as being a potentially permanent reservoir for the fungus causing WNS (Mulec et al. 2013, Raudabaugh and Miller 2013, Reynolds and Barton 2014). Bat guano is used as a fertilizer for private gardens and for the commercial production of certain field crops, and it is largely sourced from bat hibernacula in Asia and Europe. Several protocols are being developed for the decontamination of surfaces; however, there is no known regime to sterilize P. destructans spores in bat guano. The movement and distribution of bat guano from eastern to western North America could hasten the spread of White-nose Syndrome, as could its importation from Europe or Asia.

Once bat guano containing P. destructans spores has been used as a fertilizer, the spores may be transported from a garden or field to bats or their hibernacula through the movements of predators such as raccoons, which take advantage of congregations of bats (Fenton and Barclay 1980a, McAlpine et al. 2011). After the arrival of WNS, McAlpine et al. estimated that at one cave in eastern Canada, raccoons consumed thousands of dead and dying Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis. They postulated that raccoons foraging in multiple hibernacula may contribute to the dispersal of P. destructans spores (McAlpine et al. 2011) as could a person using the same foot wear in a garden and subsequently visiting a hibernaculum. Ectoparasites have been proposed as assisting in the transmission of the spores from bat to bat (Lučan et al. 2016); other insects, such as lepidopterans are also possible vectors.

Infection of the remaining Canadian range of Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis

If WNS continues to spread at its current rate, all hibernacula in Canada and the U.S. will be infected by 2025 to 2028 (Maher et al. 2012, COSEWIC 2013, O'Regan et al. 2014). Notwithstanding the 2016 detection of WNS in Washington State, there is much uncertainty as to how WNS will spread in the west and north due largely to the species differing overwintering ecology and possibly due to differences in climate.

In Canada, as WNS approaches less forested regions of southwestern Manitoba, the relative dryness and few trees in the Prairies suggests that the westward transmission of WNS by Northern Myotis may occur at a slower rate. Davy et al. (2015) suggests that the potential spread of the fungus that causes WNS into north-central Canada may be retarded by the opposing direction of gene flow of Little Brown Myotis in central Canada. However, it is possible that WNS may spread westward using alternative routes (e.g., from the south). Moreover, despite some evidence that the Rocky Mountains historically restricted bat gene flow between eastern and western areas, mixing exists and therefore it is unlikely that the mountains will be a physical barrier that prevents WNS from reaching the western coastline through bat-assisted spread (Russell et al. 2012).

WNS may reach WNS-free populations faster than would be expected from bat-to-bat transmission because of human-assisted transmission of the P. destructans spores, as is implied with the 2016 detection of WNS in Washington State. Pseudogymnoascus destructans was probably brought to North America on the clothing of tourists who had visited caves in Europe (Okoniewski et al. 2010). People who visit multiple caves without decontaminating their clothing or gear substantially increase the risk that P. destructans will be transmitted to WNS-free hibernacula. In addition, bats can be inadvertently transported. For example, there are reports of bats being transported to British Columbia within the cargo hold of a ship (P. Govindarajulu, pers. comm.) and in the awnings of camper vans (D. Hobson and G. Horne, pers. comm. 2015). Such incidences have the ability to greatly increase the rate at which WNS spreads.

Resistance and treatment

A small percentage of individuals may have a genetically-based resistance or immunity to the effects of P. destructans that would be passed to their offspring. In Central Europe, P. destructans has been recorded in approximately 63% of sampled hibernacula, and on several bat species, yet mortality due to WNS has not been observed suggesting that populations of European species may be resistant to, or tolerant of, WNS (Wibbelt et al. 2010, Horacek et al. 2012). Reichard et al. (2014) found a small number (113 / 2095 banded individuals) of Little Brown Myotis in New England survived 1 to 6 winters since the arrival of WNS and some showed signs of reproductive success. Researchers in Ontario have also documented small numbers of Little Brown Myotis surviving WNS infection and reproducing (D. Morningstar, pers. comm. 2015).

Substantial research is ongoing into the ultimate causes, treatment, and mitigation of WNS. The major molecular component responsible for the effects of P. destructans has been identified and could represent a target for WNS intervention (O’Donoghue et al. 2015). Promising new research has also isolated an enzyme that naturally occurs on the skin of bats that appears to inhibit the invasion of tissue by P. destructans in laboratory tests (Hoyt et al. 2015a). Additionally, research has demonstrated that substances produced by the soil bacterium Rhodococcus rhodochrous and the yeast Candida albicans may have potential as biological control agents of P. destructans (Cornelison et al. 2014, Raudabaugh and Miller 2015).

The impact of the threat of WNS on bat populations represents the single most important threat to these three species of bats in Canada with population declines that could result in extirpation.

Invasive non-native/alien species – cats

Domestic and feral cats are known to prey upon a substantial number of birds (Calvert et al. 2013), small mammals (Loss et al. 2013), reptiles, and amphibians (Loyd et al. 2013). Ancillotto et al. (2013) suggested that cats may be a significant threat to bats. The Community Bat Programs of British Columbia regularly receives calls and anecdotal reports of cats killing bats in British Columbia (J. Craig, pers. com.). Species that roost within anthropogenic structures (e.g., barns), such as Little Brown Myotis, are likely more susceptible to this threat because of their potential close proximity to cats. A predation event within a maternity colony, particularly while young are not yet capable of flight, has the potential to significantly affect the breeding success of that colony. In Italy, adult female bats in rural or sparsely urban areas were most likely to be preyed upon by cats (Ancillotto et al. 2013). In Yukon, cats tend to kill juvenile Little Brown Myotis that have recently become capable of flying (T. Jung, pers. comm. 2015).

Given the large numbers of bats using urban areas, the scope of bats potentially encountering cats could be restricted to large (11-70%). However, while there may sometimes be severe impacts on individual colonies, average impacts of colonies affected by cats are probably slight (1-10%).

Problematic native species

Increased incidence of seasonal algal blooms may also pose a threat to these species. Algal blooms can be a natural occurrence, however, there appears to be an escalation in the global occurrence of blooms that are harmful or toxic (Hallegraeff 1993, Anderson et al. 2002). Algal blooms occur as a result of increased nutrient inputs to waterbodies; phosphorus and nitrogen from industrial, agricultural and sewage sources are the two most important human-derived inputs (Anderson et al. 2002). These inputs allow for the production of harmful and/or toxic algae, including a chemical called microcystin. Microcystin is known to cause skin irritations, vomiting, cancer of the liver and death in humans, livestock, pets and many aquatic organisms (Kuiper-Goodman et al. 1999, Sivonen and Jones 1999). Researchers have found the transfer of microcystin from aquatic to terrestrial ecosystems, namely through the emergence of aquatic insects (Smith et al. 2008) which in turn are ingested by bats. Microcystin was detected in all fecal samples (n=20) of Little Brown Myotis near a lake in Michigan that experiences seasonal algal blooms (Woller-Skar et al. 2015). Another toxin associated with algal blooms (Anabaena flos-aquae) was implicated in a mass mortality event of bats (including Myotis spp.) in Alberta (Pybus et al. 1986).

Further study is required to understand the impacts to individual bats and populations, however, this toxin may represent a previously unrecognized threat to bat populations (Woller-Skar et al. 2015). Little Brown Myotis may be more vulnerable to this threat because of the way they forage over water, including skimming insects from the water’s surface. Tri-colored Bats also tend to forage over water, though at higher heights than Little Brown Myotis.

However, such blooms are likely to impact a negligible proportion of populations, and impacts on those would likely be negligible, but perhaps could be slight. Northern Myotis tend to forage within and alongside forests and thus their exposure to this threat is negligible.

4.2.9 Pollution

Industrial & military effluents

Reported sub-lethal effects of chemical contaminants in bats include impairment of flight and foraging ability, resulting in higher predation risk and lower energy accumulation, immunosuppression, reduced reproductive success, and change in metabolic activity (Clark and Lamont 1976, Eidels et al. 2007, Kannan et al. 2010). The effect of sub-lethal contamination on the resulting susceptibility of bats to WNS is still unclear, but high concentration of organic contaminants in Little Brown Myotis fat tissues were found both in healthy populations and populations affected by WNS (Kannan et al. 2010).

Oil spills, tailing ponds and effluent from sources such as mining and pulp and paper production can contaminate the aquatic habitats that bats rely on for their insect prey. Waste rock and mine tailings can result in release of chemical contaminants to both water and soil; acidic draining and the leaching of metals may also occur (Environment and Climate Change Canada 2015). Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are industrial chemicals which are very persistent both in the environment and in living tissue. The most obvious signs of environmental harm caused by PCBs are in aquatic ecosystems and in species that eat primarily aquatic organisms (Environment and Climate Change Canada 2015).

Little Brown Myotis and Tri-colored Bat primarily feed on flying and emerging aquatic insects over water while Northern Myotis primarily glean terrestrial insect prey within and along forests. This would suggest a greater susceptibility of exposure to the contaminants for the former two species. Irrespective of the species, there is no evidence that industrial effluents are regularly encountered by most bat populations. There is no published evidence of population level impacts on bats and impacts, even in affected areas, are likely to be slight to negligible.

Agricultural & forestry effluents

Pesticide spraying in agricultural or forested landscapes has the potential to reduce the abundance of insects on which bats feed and has the potential to affect bats through the ingestion of contaminated prey. Widespread and/or continuous application of pesticides (such as that which might occur for Spruce Budworm - Choristoneura fumiferana, Mountain Pine Beetle - Dendroctonus ponderosae, or on agricultural landscapes) could potentially have substantial impacts on food availability and physiology. Even at local scales in the United Kingdom, bat activity was significantly higher in aquatic habitats of organic farms versus conventional farms, suggesting greater prey availability in areas with lower levels of agrochemical use (Wickramasinghe et al. 2003).

Neonicotinoid insecticides were introduced in the 1990s, are currently the most widely used class of insecticides globally, and their use is continuing to increase (Sparks 2013, Douglas and Tooker 2015). They are generally used on agricultural lands, but have been detected in wetlands (Main et al. 2014) and watercourses in Canada (Environment Canada 2011, Xing et al. 2013) and are frequently found at levels that exceed water quality guidelines (Morrissey et al. 2015). Neonicotinoids adversely affect insect populations (and therefore potential prey of bats) (Goulson 2013); some of the most important prey (flies, caddisflies, and mayflies) of Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bats are among the most sensitive aquatic insects to neonicotinoids (Morrissey et al. 2015). Reduced prey availability could potentially result in increased time spent foraging, less fat stores and/or increased time spent in torpor, ultimately leading to poor body condition and resulting in reduced reproductive and/or survival rates (Talerico 2008, Reimer 2013). In addition to reduced prey populations, neonicotinoids also cause direct sub-lethal effects on the reproductive success, development, immune function, and growth in numerous vertebrates (Gibbons et al. 2015). Mason et al. (2013) hypothesized that the thousands of invertebrates consumed by bats would inevitably expose bats to small cumulative doses of these toxins. To date, no research has explored the direct or indirect effects of neonicotinoids on bats.

Insecticides are only applied to a small percentage of Canada's total agricultural and forestry area each year, often in the same areas in multiple years (Statistics Canada 2018) but given that effects of insecticides may expand beyond where they are applied, especially if they enter water supplies, the scope is considered to be large. However, given that bat populations are already greatly reduced due to White-nose Syndrome, it seems unlikely that declines in insects, even in heavily affected areas, would be large enough to cause food shortages for bats leading to further declines of more than 30% over next 15-30 years, and average impacts are likely much lower. There is no evidence of population level impacts on bats related to direct mortality or impacts on reproduction from pesticides (except if deliberately used to kill bats, which is covered in threat 5.1). Agricultural effluents that cause toxic algal blooms from increased nutrient loads in wetlands/waterbodies, and mercury and acid rain are captured elsewhere.

Air-borne pollutants

Mercury is a naturally occurring element that is enriched in the environment by human activities. Long-range atmospheric transport and deposition is the dominant source of mercury to many aquatic habitats over much of the landscape (Fitzgerald et al. 1998, U.S. Geological Survey 2000). Bio-available mercury is also mobilized within watersheds by forestry activities, hydroelectric reservoir creation, and various industrial-related activities (Porvari et al. 2003, Vuori et al. 2003, Wiener et al. 2003). Mercury concentrations in aquatic food webs are usually correlated with low pH levels, and as a result mercury concentrations increase from west to east across Canada, along with pH levels, in freshwater food webs (Depew et al. 2013).

Bat species appear to be particularly susceptible to heavy metal accumulation because most species are long-lived, occupy high trophic levels, feed on aquatic emergent insects, and sustain high metabolic rates and food intake. A study in the northeastern United States that collected samples of ten different bat species from point-source and non-point source locations found the highest concentrations of mercury in Tri-colored Bat, Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis (Yates et al. 2014). This study also found significantly higher accumulation of mercury in blood and fur samples in Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis in all age classes near WNS contaminated sites than in non-contaminated locations (Karouna-Renier et al. 2014, Yates et al. 2014). However, Karouna-Renier et al. (2014) did not find significant differences in the genotoxic effects (i.e., DNA damage) of mercury between contaminated and non-contaminated sites. Mercury concentrations in Little Brown Myotis sampled across Nova Scotia varied among colonies in relation to nearby lake acidity, and 48% of the individuals sampled had concentrations in excess of a threshold associated with neurochemical changes in other bat species from Virginia (Little et al. 2015b). Of 344 Little Brown Myotis individuals sampled from maternity roosts across Atlantic Canada (Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland and Labrador), 37% had concentrations exceeding the neurochemical threshold (Little et al. 2015a). These recent studies raise concerns regarding the effects of mercury and other environmental contaminants on reproductive success, physiological responses (e.g., immune system responses), and survival.

Because mercury contaminates aquatic systems, it would presumably be of particular concern for both Little Brown Myotis and Tri-colored Bat that feed primarily over water on aquatic insects. However, it has been found that Northern Myotis can also be exposed to significant levels of mercury (Yates et al. 2014).  Given that these air-borne pollutants are deposited through long-range atmospheric transport, the scope is pervasive. However, there is no evidence to support population-level impacts so severity is considered negligible to slight.

Excess energy

The alteration (e.g., timing, spatial extent, and spectral signature) of natural light regimes from artificial light sources can impact species in various direct and indirect ways related to foraging, reproduction, communication, habitat use, and movement behavior (Stone et al. 2009, Gaston et al. 2013, Mathews et al. 2015). Impacts may be beneficial (e.g., increased foraging opportunities), neutral, or detrimental (e.g., increased susceptibility to predation, collisions with lighted structures) (Kyba et al. 2011).

For bats in particular, when insect prey becomes concentrated around light sources, foraging efficiency can increase which has been viewed as beneficial to some species (Entwistle et al. 2001, Lacoeuilhe et al. 2014, Mathews et al. 2015). In southwestern Ontario, Furlonger (1987) found all species of bats encountered exploited concentrations of insects around artificial light sources though this was not significant for Myotis spp.; Tri-colored Bats were not encountered. In general, it has been found that bats with high or medium wing-loading and fast flight exploit insects at street lamps while gleaners and flutter-detectors^{footnote 13[13]} rarely, if ever, forage at street lights (Mathews et al. 2015). Similarly, in France, aerial hawkers^{footnote 14[14]} were light-tolerant, while slow fliers would experience a high predation risk at high light levels and thus do not use lit areas to forage (Lacoeuilhe et al. 2014). Little Brown Myotis are aerial hawkers and efficient, maneuverable fliers, and are therefore expected to benefit from foraging opportunities provided by lights; Northern Myotis are slow fliers that often hover hunt and Tri-colored Bats are slow, erratic, flutter fliers, and are therefore not expected to forage at lights (Naughton 2012).

Though seemingly beneficial to some species of bats, light pollution has been attributed to reductions in many insect populations that are attracted to lights, including moths, aquatic insects, and other terrestrial insects (Frank 1988, Perkin et al. 2014, MacGregor et al. 2015). Many insects are attracted to artificial lights, affecting their dispersal and navigation as well as reproduction, mating, crypsis, and ability to evade predators. Individuals experience direct mortality from flying to exhaustion, burning to death, or becoming trapped in light receptacles (Frank 1988, Horváth et al. 2009, Perkin et al. 2014). This in turn reduces the biomass and abundance, and can change the relative composition of insect populations, creating implications in the food chain through disruption of predator-prey relationships, pollination services, and ecosystem function (Hölker et al. 2010, Kyba et al. 2011).

In Hungary, illumination of the roosts of house-dwelling Myotis species resulted in the collapse of entire colonies and reduced growth rates of juveniles (Boldogh et al. 2007). This was due to delayed emergence from roosts resulting in missed opportunities for foraging during peak insect activity; presumably, the avoidance of lighted areas is due to increased predation risk and/or negative effects on the bats’ orientation ability (Boldogh et al. 2007, Lacoeuilhe et al. 2014).

The impacts of artificial light appear to be variable and species-specific. Little direct research dedicated to understanding the effects of light pollution has been done on these three species of bats in Canada and further study is required.

Mining exploration activities, forestry operations, or other industrial activities may threaten bats if the activities cause noise, light, and vibrations near hibernacula that disturb hibernating bats and cause them to arouse from torpor. Similarly, noise and vibrations in areas where maternity colonies are found may result in reduced reproductive success, roost abandonment, and relocation to other sites (McCracken 2011). Since bats rely on echolocation or prey-generated sounds to forage, anthropogenic noise could also interfere with foraging and affect prey detection (Bunkley et al. 2015). However, a study of compressor stations associated with natural gas extraction in New Mexico revealed no significant difference in the activity level of Little Brown Myotis at loud compressor sites compared to quieter well pads (Bunkley et al. 2015).

Overall, in the course of an annual cycle, most bats in Canada encounter artificial light or noise.

4.2.10 Climate change & severe weather

The effects of climate change on bats are unknown. Bats (particularly lactating females) are more susceptible to evaporative water loss than other mammals, suggesting that they may be vulnerable to increased temperatures associated with climate change (Webb et al. 1995, Chruszcz and Barclay 2002, Adams and Hayes 2008). Adams (2010) found significant reproductive declines in Little Brown Myotis in years that mimicked predicted conditions related to future climate change scenarios (i.e., reduced availability of water) for western North America.

Other direct effects include the destruction of roosts and/or hibernacula as a result of increased storm frequency that is predicted to occur in the future (Jones and Rebelo 2013). Although warmer temperatures as a result of climate change could benefit hibernating bats in Canada, it may also lead to a disruption of hibernation, a reduction in water, and increased disease (Sherwin et al. 2012). Humphries et al. (2002) predicted climate change to cause a northward range expansion of Little Brown Myotis within 80 years.

The extent, intensity, and frequency of forest fires are projected to further increase because of warmer and drier springs and summers (Flannigan et al. 2009, de Groot et al. 2013, Girardin et al. 2013). Similarly, forest insect outbreaks (e.g., Spruce Budworm, and Mountain Pine Beetle) may intensify with the changing climate (Mattson and Haack 1987). These processes have the ability to alter large forested areas and cause whole tree mortality (Fleming et al. 2002), but may also create available snags for bat roosting and/or increase local prey availability (Wilson and Barclay 2006). Therefore, the ultimate impacts on bat populations and their habitats are unknown.

In addition to direct effects, climate change is predicted to indirectly affect bat survival through its effect on insect populations (Arlettaz et al. 2001). In northeastern regions of the continent, climate change is expected to cause wetter winters and drier summers (Hayhoe et al. 2007, Huntington et al. 2009). Adult female Little Brown Myotis have reduced annual survival in dry years, presumably related to the link between moisture availability and emergent insect availability (Frick et al. 2010b). The timing of peak abundances in some insects have also become earlier (Both et al. 2009). This may affect the synchronicity of peak prey densities and bat breeding (Jones et al. 2009) and therefore pup survival; sufficient prey is needed for pups to gain the fat tissue that is necessary for overwinter survival (Kunz et al. 1998).

5 Population and distribution objectives

There are no reliable current or past population estimates for Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, or Tri-colored Bat in Canada. As such, population trends will be estimated using data from known and previously surveyed hibernacula and roosts throughout the species’ Canadian range (as presented in COSEWIC 2013) as an index of the total population trends, and augmented by surveys and monitoring presented in section 6.2: Strategic Direction for Recovery of this recovery strategy.

The population and distribution objectives for Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis are presented together due to the similarities among the two species, such as belonging to the same Genus, having large geographical distributions extending across much of Canada and exhibiting similar declines in response to WNS. Tri-colored Bat is presented separately due to it belonging to a different Genus and its smaller distribution that has been entirely impacted by WNS.

A short-term and long-term population objective is presented for all three species within areas known to be affected by WNS. The short-term objectives provide the benchmarks to achieving the long-term objectives and provide an opportunity to review and re-assess along the way. Short-term objectives are presented because it is recognized that the long-term population objectives will take many years to achieve and there is uncertainty as to whether they can be achieved given there are as yet no known techniques to treat WNS or arrest it’s transmission. The long-term objectives represent the desired state of the population in areas affected by WNS and recognize the slow population growth rates of these species.

Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis

The observed declines in these two species in areas affected by WNS have resulted in populations whose status and condition differ greatly from populations in areas not yet known to be affected by WNS. Therefore, area-specific population objectives for these two species are defined based on the current status of WNS across the country: WNS-affected areas and areas that are not yet known to be affected by WNS. The areas to which the population objectives apply are considered dynamic in response to the on-going spread of WNS, as the status of WNS is expected to change over time. To obtain an up-to-date map of the current status of WNS refer to the online map made available by the Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative^{footnote 15[15]}. When referring to the map, WNS-affected areas refer to the area that encompasses the affected counties/districts (as depicted in Figures 1-3 in this document), not the individual counties/districts. The current western invasion front^{footnote 16[16]} in Canada is in Manitoba, in the Lake St. George area; the current eastern invasion front is in western Newfoundland (as of 29 May 2018) (CWHC 2018, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2018). To obtain an updated map of the area affected by WNS contact us at: ec.planificationduretablissement-recoveryplanning.ec@canada.ca.

Distribution objective:

• The distribution objective for both the Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis is to maintain (or where applicable restore to) the pre-WNS extent of occurrence (the area that encompasses the known geographic distribution of the species in Canada as depicted in Figures 1 and 2)

Population objective (within WNS-affected areas):

• Within WNS-affected areas, the short-term (12-18 years) population objective is to stop the declining population trend, or if feasible, achieve an increasing population trend^{footnote 17[17]}
• Within WNS-affected areas, the long-term (many generations) population objective is a self-sustaining^{footnote 18[18]}, resilient^{footnote 19[19]}, redundant^{footnote 20[20]} and representative^{footnote 21[21]} population

The range of WNS overlaps with approximately 28% and 17% of Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis’ Canadian ranges, respectively, and is expanding at an average rate of 200 to 250 kilometers per year (COSEWIC 2013). Since conditions suitable for P. destructans growth exist in areas not yet affected by WNS, without mitigation, the entire Canadian population of both species could be affected by 2025 to 2028 (COSEWIC 2013), and perhaps sooner with the 2016 detection of WNS in Washington State. A 12-18 year timeframe was deemed appropriate for the short-term population objective as it represents the timeframe for when the entire range of these two species is predicted to be impacted by WNS.

While declines in both these species have been drastic following the introduction of WNS, there is evidence of an increasing trend in annual survival of Little Brown Myotis post-WNS from a site in New Jersey (Maslo et al. 2015) to support the possibility of achieving the population objective in WNS-affected areas in the short-term. This finding suggests that stabilization of remnant colonies post-WNS are due to increased annual survival rates rather than other factors, such as immigration. However, despite improved annual survival rates, population models based on this study predict continuing population declines in Little Brown Myotis (Maslo et al. 2015). Improving adult and juvenile survival, such as reducing adult and juvenile additive mortality (from all sources, including WNS), is the most important element to target to promote recovery potential in areas impacted by WNS (Maslo et al. 2015).

The long-term population objective in WNS-affected areas is based on the slow population growth rate of these two species, which implies that populations would require many generations (i.e., hundreds of years) to recover (see Limiting Factors section). The degree to which the Canadian (and continental) populations of Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis will ever be able to fully recover to their historical levels in known WNS-affected areas is uncertain. The short-term objective recognizes that achieving an increasing population trend (if feasible) will improve the recovery potential of the populations (e.g., ability to re-populate areas affected by WNS and increase the likelihood of finding individuals with resistance to WNS) and, hence, the ability to meet the long-term objectives.

Population objective (areas not yet affected by WNS):

• Within areas not yet affected by WNS, the population objective is to maintain a stable population trend, or if feasible, achieve an increasing population trend

Preventing the introduction of WNS to hibernacula in areas not yet affected (e.g., Prairies, northern Canada, western Canada) is the most important factor for preventing further loss of individuals. In Canada, as WNS approaches less forested regions of southeastern Manitoba, the lower density of trees suggests that westward transmission of WNS by Northern Myotis (that rely on forested areas) may occur at a slower rate. Davy et al. (2015) suggests that the potential spread of the fungus that causes WNS into north-central Canada may be retarded by the opposing direction of gene flow of Little Brown Myotis in central Canada.

Though information on bat population sizes and trends in Canada is lacking, it is believed that populations outside of areas affected by WNS are generally stable and/or increasing. For instance, in the northeastern U.S., Langwig et al. (2012) estimated that bat populations (all species) in general, prior to the arrival of WNS, were growing at an average rate of 8% per year and population trend analyses of hibernacula data from across the U.S. indicated the population trends of these two species of bat in particular were relatively stable (Ellison et al. 2003, Frick et al. 2010a, Frick et al. 2010b). On this premise, the population objective is set at maintaining stable population trends, or improving them (if feasible), As in WNS-affected areas, the objective recognizes that achieving an increasing population trend (if feasible) will improve the species’ recovery potential. Nevertheless, it is acknowledged that it may not be possible to prevent the spread of WNS.

Tri-colored Bat

Distribution objective:

• The distribution objective for Tri-colored Bat is to restore (then maintain) the pre-WNS extent of occurrence (the area that encompasses the known geographic distribution of the species in Canada as depicted in Figure 3)

Short-term (10 years) population objective:

• The short-term population objective is to stop the declining population trend, or if feasible, achieve an increasing population trend^{footnote 22[22]} over the next 10 years

The entire range of Tri-colored Bat in Canada has been impacted by WNS. It is expected that extensive research into treatments for WNS on individuals or in hibernacula will be explored. Though post-WNS survival rates are unknown for Tri‑colored Bats, approaches similar to those suggested for Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis to improve annual survival of adults and juveniles (or reduce mortality of these demographic groups) are expected to support achieving the population and distribution objectives. Given the entire range of the species is currently impacted by WNS, the 10-year time frame was deemed appropriate for the short-term population objective because determining if the population has stopped declining or is increasing will take multiple years of data acquisition. Furthermore, the COSEWIC criteria for assessment include reviewing population change within 10-year windows.

Long-term population objective:

• The long-term population objective is a self-sustaining, resilient, redundant and representative population

The degree to which the Tri-colored Bat population will be able to fully recover to its historical levels is uncertain. The long-term population objective is based on the expectation that, even if individuals develop resistance or a treatment for WNS is found, the slow population growth rate of this species means populations would require many generations (i.e., hundreds of years) to recover (see Limiting Factors section).

Because the Canadian population of Tri-colored Bat occurs at the northeastern part of its continental range, and the vast majority of its population and distribution occurs in the United States to the eastern coast of Central America, population changes at the continental level will have a significant effect on recovery feasibility in Canada.

These objectives may be revised as new information related to WNS and bat populations across Canada become available.

6 Broad strategies and general approaches to meet objectives

6.1 Actions already completed or currently underway

The following list of actions is not exhaustive, but is meant to illustrate the main areas where work is already underway and to give context to the broad strategies to recovery outlined in section 6.2.  Actions completed or underway include the following:

International:

• In April 2015, a ‘Letter of Intent Related to Efforts to Promote Conservation of Bats in the United Mexican States, the United States of America and Canada’ was signed by representatives of each of the three countries to increase collaboration and coordination of bat conservation across North America
• The North American Bat Monitoring Program (NABat) is creating a continental-wide coordinated effort for monitoring bats at local to range-wide scales to provide reliable data that will promote effective conservation decision-making. A Plan for the North American Bat Monitoring Program was released in June 2015 (Loeb et al. 2015)
• North American Bat Conservation Alliance (NABCA) facilitates communication between bat organizations across North America, develops conservation priorities, and addresses conservation issues
• The Northeast Bat Working Group and Western Bat Working Group enable information exchange between agencies, organizations, industry, and individuals interested in bat research, management, and conservation, and facilitates multi-state collaborations (Northeast Bat Working Group 2015, Western Bat Working Group 2015)
• The North American Society for Bat Research promotes and develops research of bats and coordinates an annual Northern American Symposium on Bat Research (NASBR 2015)
• The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service provides funding for research and coordinates an annual WNS workshop or conference that brings together international researchers to present new results and develop management strategies
• There is Canadian representation on the various United States technical working groups involved with WNS response to ensure approaches developed in Canada are consistent with international efforts and that the data collected is able to be shared and compared

National:

• Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative (CWHC) works in collaboration with federal, provincial and territorial, academic, and non-governmental organizations to organize surveillance for WNS and the fungus that causes it, ensure appropriate standardized diagnostic testing and reporting of surveillance results, develop national decontamination protocols and product assessment, coordinate national-level monitoring of bats, and identify data gaps and data management needs in Canada. CWHC leads Canada’s Inter-agency White Nose Syndrome Committee which contains five technical working groups. This group updated A National Plan to Manage White Nose Syndrome in Bats in Canada in February 2015 and will likely continue to serve as one of the main avenues for national implementation efforts related to WNS (Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative 2015a)
• Efforts are underway by CWHC, NABCA, and Environment and Climate Change Canada to expand the Edubat project into Canada to increase bat education and outreach (BatsLive 2015)
• The Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs of Quebec in collaboration with the Centre de la science de la biodiversité du Quebec (CSBQ) and the University of Winnipeg developed a website (English; French) to promote a citizen science project for maternity roost monitoring in central and eastern Canada (Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba) and may be expanded to other parts of the country. The website presents documentation about bats, their conservation, and BMPs for bats in buildings. The website also hosts a maternity roost database, where citizens can enter a roost and its annual counts
• Federally, provincially and territorially, bats are considered for land-use development project screening and permitting and during environmental assessments across Canada. Mitigations measures and pre- and post-development monitoring programs are established as necessary to minimize and evaluate adverse effects
• Environment and Climate Change Canada is developing beneficial management practices (BMPs) for the forestry, wind energy, mining, and nuisance wildlife control industries, as well as for bats in buildings
• Researchers at University of Winnipeg and Trent University are investigating the genetic response of bats pre- and post-WNS across Canada
• The Canadian Wildlife Federation has several outreach activities related to bats (Canadian Wildlife Federation 2015). For example, they have a national bat box program used to distribute bat boxes and encourage citizens to track occupancy
• Several national parks across Canada are conducting bat monitoring using a national protocol developed by Parks Canada Agency and contributing to NABat
• Parks Canada Agency has produced a video with support from CWHC to illustrate the use of decontamination protocols, along with information related to bats and WNS
• Under the National Park General Regulations, caves within Canada’s national park system are closed unless specifically permitted by a park superintendent
• Parks Canada Agency has prepared internal national standards and best management practices for bats using hibernacula and for maternity roosts on PCA managed lands
• Parks Canada has prepared numerous bat outreach and education materials (videos, games, Qs and As, etc.) to provide Canadians with information about bat conservation and encourage all to take action for their recovery

Western and northern Canada:

• The Western Canada Bat Network (WCBN) facilitates information exchange between groups and individuals involved in bat research, management, and conservation in western Canada, Alaska, and some northwestern states, primarily through semi-annual newsletters
• In British Columbia, the Community Bat Programs of British Columbia promotes conservation of bats on private lands, provides a resource to landowners dealing with bat issues, and engages citizen scientists to collect data on bat populations. They also conduct roost emergence counts at maternity colonies to establish baseline relative abundance data, against which future declines can be measured (Community Bat Programs of BC 2014)
• The Community Bat Programs of BC has developed BMPs for pest control techniques and has started outreach initiatives with provincial pest management companies (Community Bat Programs of BC 2014)
• The British Columbia Bat Action Team, in collaboration with the British Columbia Ministry of Environment has published BMPs for caving activities and mining and wind energy industries (Holroyd et al. 2016)
• Winter bat activity is being monitored throughout southern British Columbia by Dr. Cori Lausen (Wildlife Conservation Society Canada), Environment and Climate Change Canada-Canadian Wildlife Service, the British Columbia Ministry of Environment (Dr. Purnima Govindarajulu) and others; winter activity across northern and central British Columbia is also being monitored by Dr. Cori Lausen
• The British Columbia Ministry of Environment and Dr. Cori Lausen have developed appropriate hygiene protocols for bat researchers, cavers and others visiting/working in underground bat habitats
• The British Columbia Ministry of Environment and the Royal British Columbia Museum are archiving carcasses from bat mortality incidents and bat DNA to establish baseline information for British Columbia. A complete health assessment including testing to detect WNS, rabies and other parasites is conducted by Dr. Chelsea Himsworth (British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture) on all the incidental mortality bat carcasses that are recovered
• Dr. Cori Lausen is leading a liaison project (Bats and Cavers Project - BatCaver.org) with the caving community in British Columbia and Alberta to locate caves and mines used by bats
• The British Columbia Ministry of Forests published the Karst Management Handbook for British Columbia (BC Ministry of Forests 2003) to assist forest planners in developing appropriate management practices when conducting forest operations in karst terrain
• Thompson Rivers University, Dr. Ann Cheeptham, funded by US Fish and Wildlife Service is investigating potential sources of fungus-inhibiting microbes from caves, including the fungus that causes WNS
• Alberta Environment and Parks has developed guidelines for minimizing the impacts of wind energy development on bats and protocols for pre- and post-construction surveys
• Alberta Environment and Parks participates in NABat, monitors known hibernacula, searches for new overwintering locations, delivers outreach on bats and has Sensitive Species Protocols that include bats
• The Alberta Bat Action Team develops protocols (e.g., decontamination), identifies research and management priorities, and facilitates information exchange
• Alberta Community Bat program is a new initiative in Alberta to provide resources to private landowners, and engage citizens in bat conservation efforts including locating and reporting roosts
• Saskatchewan’s Environmental Code includes a requirement for any industrial project in the province to ensure it is not impacting bats. The specific provisions pertaining to mines include the requirement of surveys for cave animals and habitat prior to mine reclamation activities
• The Saskatchewan Ministry of Environment is finalizing guidelines for siting, monitoring and operation of wind energy projects in the province
• The Government of Yukon surveys Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis to better document their occurrence, reproductive status, and range in Yukon
• The Government of Yukon and Government of the Northwest Territories conduct public education through interpretative events and brochures
• The Government of Yukon engages in various research projects including studying the effects of natural disturbances, the importance of old-growth riparian forest, and long-term monitoring at select maternity colonies
• The Government of the Northwest Territories is gathering baseline information on bats throughout Northwest Territories, searching for undiscovered hibernacula, and conducting WNS surveillance, population monitoring, and management planning at known hibernacula
• Various partners (including Government of the Northwest Territories, Sahtu Renewable Resources Board, industry, academic researchers and community members) have erected acoustic bat recorders at several locations in the Sahtu, Dehcho, South Slave and North Slave regions of the Northwest Territories to learn more about the distribution and activity patterns of bats in these regions

Central Canada:

• Manitoba Conservation and Water Stewardship have taken a number of actions aimed at protecting Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis. For example, the locations of hibernacula are considered confidential and visitation to hibernacula is discouraged for any reason other than research. Researchers are required to follow decontamination procedures upon entering and leaving hibernaculum as a condition of their research permit. Some caves used by hibernating bats are protected in an ecological reserve and are gated to prevent human access
• The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry has developed guidelines for minimizing the impacts of wind energy development on bats and is working with the Ministry of Northern Development and Mines and the mining industry to minimize industrial disturbance to bats and their habitats
• Ontario’s Forest Management Guide for Conserving Biodiversity at the Stand and Sites Scales includes direction designed to maintain suitable habitats and habitat features, including hibernacula (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources 2010)
• The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry has developed Ontario’s White-nose Syndrome Response Plan (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry 2015)
• The Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry acoustically monitors bat populations during summer and winter throughout Ontario
• Environment and Climate Change Canada has collected radar and acoustic data in southern Ontario to determine if bats exhibit broad-front migratory movements or concentrate along linear landscape features
• Summer population monitoring is underway in Ontario by the University of Guelph and Myotistar
• Myotistar and Gray Owl Environmental Inc. (with support from Environment and Climate Change Canada and the National Speleological Society) are conducting advanced roost use monitoring at a significant summer roost near Cambridge, Ontario where bats are surviving and reproducing despite being in a WNS endemic region of Canada

Eastern Canada:

• The Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs of Quebec continues to track the spread of WNS in various natural hibernacula during winter and spring. In summer, various initiatives have been put in place to monitor bat populations. The department is conducting acoustic surveys in various regions of Quebec through the acoustic surveillance network of bats (Réseau Chirops). This network, established in 2000 by the Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs of Quebec in collaboration with the Montreal Biodôme and Envirotel, consists of 14 acoustic inventory routes in various Quebec regions. The department also conducts maternity roost counts in anthropogenic structures (Neighbourhood Bat Watch). More intensive monitoring is in place on the North Shore where WNS has not been detected
• A bat recovery team for Quebec was created in 2014. The team is developing a recovery plan for the province and coordinating provincial-level recovery actions
• Bat populations are being monitored regularly by the Department of National Defence at Canadian Forces Base Valcartier
• St. Mary’s University in Nova Scotia and Environment and Climate Change Canada are investigating mercury levels in Little Brown Myotis in Atlantic Canada
• The New Brunswick Museum has monitored the spread of WNS, and associated rate of mortality at known hibernacula throughout the province during pre- and post-WNS years, and continues to provide research in the pervasiveness of the pathogen, the cave microfauna, and environmental conditions
• The New Brunswick Museum, in collaboration with New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources, have established a reporting program to collect observations of winter day-flying bats, leading to new information on the distribution of these species in the province
• New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources has developed survey guidelines for bat and bird mortality during pre- and post-construction periods of wind farm developments in New Brunswick
• Prince Edward Island’s Forest, Fish and Wildlife Division promotes the reporting of bat sightings and works with the CWHC to implement bat monitoring programs
• Nova Scotia Bat Conservation by the Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources monitors bats during the spring, summer, and fall
• St. Mary’s University is monitoring winter counts at hibernacula in Nova Scotia
• St. Mary’s University is researching demographics and social behavior of Little Brown Myotis in collaboration with Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Environment and Conservation in Newfoundland and Labrador
• The Government of Newfoundland and Labrador continues WNS surveillance and monitors known populations. In collaboration with Memorial University of Newfoundland and Parks Canada, acoustic monitoring takes place to determine species’ presence and abundance. Surveys for Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis in Labrador are conducted to better document the occurrence, reproductive status and range
• In the summer of 2015, CWHC was contracted by PEI National Park to acoustically monitor habitat with stationary and mobile detectors. Coastal dunes, forest edges, wetlands, and fresh water sites were monitored, as well as a selection of decommissioned buildings in the national park. Acoustic monitoring will continue for multiple years to analyze bat echolocation activity trends
• Atlantic Coastal Action Plan (ACAP) Cape Breton has been monitoring bats on Cape Breton Island since 2013. Monitoring efforts primarily involve long-term deployment of acoustic detectors in summering habitat and at known and potential hibernacula, and conducting maternity colony counts. In 2015, the program expanded by including additional monitoring sites in New Brunswick, Quebec and Newfoundland though partnerships with La Société d'aménagement de la rivière Madawaska, the New Brunswick Museum, Attention FragÎles and ACAP Humber Arm

6.2 Strategic direction for recovery

The Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative (Canadian Inter-agency White Nose Syndrome Committee) released a revised version of A National Plan to Manage White Nose Syndrome in Bats in Canada in February 2015 (Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative 2015c). Whenever possible, the approaches in Table 5 were developed to align with initiatives outlined in that plan. When appropriate, the approaches were categorized into those that are applicable to areas not known to be affected by WNS and those that are applicable to known WNS-affected areas (and the invasion front). The current western invasion front in Canada is in Manitoba, in the Lake St. George area while the eastern invasion front is in western Newfoundland (as of 29 May 2018) (CWHC 2018, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2018).

^p “Priority” reflects the degree to which the broad strategy contributes directly to the recovery of the species or is an essential precursor to an approach that contributes to the recovery of the species.

6.3 Narrative to support the recovery planning table

Recovery of Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat will require commitment, resources, collaboration, and cooperation among federal, provincial, and territorial jurisdictions, wildlife management boards, Aboriginal people, species’ experts, researchers, local communities, landowners, industry, and other interested parties from Canada and the United States. Because of their widespread range across the country, it will be important to apply adaptive landscape-scale management both in the response to the threat of WNS and in the management of bat habitat. For the purposes of evaluating the effectiveness of recovery efforts, and adjusting them where necessary, it is also important to monitor the spread of WNS, hibernacula, maternity roosts, population trends, and the distributions of the three species of bats.

A comprehensive approach to research and monitoring (which includes all stages of the annual life cycles and the entire extent of occurrence) will be required to more completely understand the status, limiting factors, significant threats, and habitat use of each species. Currently, there are no reliable population estimates for any of the three bat species and, in the short-term, it is not realistic to expect that population estimates will be derived. To determine the success of conservation and management efforts, and determine if the population and distribution objectives have been met, an effective monitoring program is needed to measure relative changes in bat abundance over time. To maintain a uniform sampling method across Canada, the protocol of the North American Bat Monitoring Program (NABat) should be used, to the extent possible, as the Canadian national sampling framework (Loeb et al. 2015).

Because WNS is spreading quickly across Canada, research and monitoring pertinent to the fungus must be performed promptly and efficiently before opportunities are lost. This will likely require a large body of researchers, governments, industry, Aboriginal communities, and volunteers to coordinate efforts, communicate effectively, pool resources, and share findings efficiently (Langwig et al. 2015a). Whenever possible, research efforts and priorities should be coordinated through established groups (e.g., North American Bat Conservation Alliance, and CWHC) to avoid duplicated effort and resources. To succeed in preventing the spread of WNS (see section 5: Population and Distribution Objectives), research aimed at a treatment for individuals and/or hibernacula infected with WNS or methods to significantly reduce or prevent the spread of P. destructans will continue to be required.

Education, awareness, partnerships and stewardship are required for reducing risks associated with the human-assisted spread of WNS and to develop and implement initiatives aimed at conserving bat habitats and mitigating other threats. The development of additional beneficial management practices, and the implementation and promotion of existing ones, can assist in managing known threats to the species. Building on existing partnerships and continuing to identify opportunities for collaboration will help to support recovery of bat population both nationally and internationally.

As noted in the threats section (section 4: Threats), in areas where bat populations have significantly declined as a result of WNS, it is important to note that mortality of even a small number of the remaining individuals (particularly juveniles and adults) has the ability to impact the survival of local populations and their recovery. Identifying the importance and risk factors associated with these threats on each of the three species becomes increasingly important (see Appendix B), so that appropriate mitigation measures can be adopted in a timely manner.

While necessary monitoring and research occurs across North America, the current state of available science can provide a base of knowledge to conserve known habitats and mitigate threats to the species. Various beneficial management practices are available for industry and private landowners.

7 Critical habitat

Critical habitat is the habitat that is necessary for the survival or recovery of the species. Section 41(1)(c) of SARA requires that the recovery strategy include an identification of the species’ critical habitat, to the extent possible, as well as examples of activities that are likely to result in its destruction.

7.1 Identification of the species’ critical habitat

The critical habitat identified in this document is considered a partial identification, insufficient to meet the population and distribution objectives. A schedule of studies has been developed to provide the information necessary to complete the identification of critical habitat (see section 7.2: Schedule of Studies). In this recovery strategy critical habitat is partially identified for hibernacula, based on the best available information for each species as of May 2018.

Hibernacula

Hibernacula are used by Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat to survive when ambient temperatures decline and insects are unavailable, and as such are necessary for the survival and recovery of these species. The availability of suitable hibernacula may be limiting for these species (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources 2010, COSEWIC 2013).

Occupancy

• Any site where hibernation by Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis and/or Tri-colored Bat has been observed at least once between 1995 and 2018 is identified as critical habitat

As a result of human safety concerns, efforts to minimize bat disturbance, and the difficulty in locating and identifying hibernating bat species within complex underground structures, the number and identity of bats using a hibernaculum cannot always be directly observed; in these cases, other forms of evidence of occupancy can be used (e.g., acoustic data, genetic material, swarming behaviour). For example, at sites where there was appropriate habitat for hibernation but a hibernaculum could not be verified (e.g., chambers are inaccessible, or entry is avoided to minimize disturbance), swarming (an activity that typically occurs adjacent to or within a hibernaculum in the fall) was considered an indicator of a site’s use for hibernation. In addition, bat activity in the spring during the period when bats emerge from hibernacula may also be used as an indicator of the sites’ occupancy. As such, these sites (i.e., the subterranean features described in the biophysical attributes) were included in the identification of critical habitat. A threshold number of individuals is not defined in the occupancy criterion due to the difficulty in locating individuals within hibernacula and obtaining accurate counts, while also recognizing that the discovery of one hibernating individual often indicates the occurrence of more undetected individuals using the hibernaculum.

Due to the difficulty in distinguishing Little Brown Myotis from Yuma Myotis within areas where the ranges of these two species overlap and the extreme risk that WNS presents to bat populations, records that were unable to differentiate the two were included in the identification of critical habitat as a precautionary measure. Similarly, it is often not possible to identify to acoustic recordings to the species’ level due to similar acoustic signatures among the species. However, acoustic data that could be identified to the Myotis level were used as supporting evidence for a sites’ inclusion as critical habitat (in conjunction with other factors such as time of year the recording was obtained, species’ present within the study area, etc.).

The time period (1995 - 2018) recognizes that Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat exhibit strong site fidelity to hibernacula, individual sites may be used by hibernating bats for decades, and suitable hibernacula may be limiting.

Sites that were deemed to have unsuitable habitat (e.g., suitable habitat no longer exists, or hibernating bats did not survive winter) were not identified as critical habitat; this does not include sites affected by WNS (occupied or previously-occupied). The long-term persistence of the WNS pathogen, P. destructans, in hibernacula affects the suitability of caves and mines for maintaining self-sustaining and resilient bat populations. Nevertheless, WNS-affected hibernacula are considered critical habitat because they need to be preserved from loss or modification to aid population recovery in the scenario that a treatment or decontamination measures are discovered, or natural resistance is developed.

Knowledge regarding the importance of habitat associations, their configuration surrounding the hibernacula, and at what geographical scale they exert an influence, if any, on the predictability of bat occurrence at these sites, is limited. At present, knowledge related to the locations of hibernacula is also limited throughout the range of these species. In addition, many potentially suitable overwintering locations require evidence of use by hibernating bats. Filling these knowledge gaps is necessary to complete the identification of critical habitat for hibernacula and will be addressed through completion of the schedule of studies (section 7.2).

Biophysical attributes

• Hibernacula for these species are subterranean features, such as caves, abandoned mines, hand-dug wells, cellars, tunnels, rock crevices or tree root hollows where light and noise levels are low
• Hibernacula typically contain sections that have relatively stable temperatures (2-10 °C) and stable, high humidity levels (>80 %)

A single hibernaculum may include multiple entry and exit points and vast underground networks of chambers. The full extent of these features are included in the definition of hibernacula as critical habitat (regardless of the location of hibernating bats within the structure) because (1) individuals may use multiple areas within these structures and it is not always possible to determine their usage, and (2) the entire, intact network is generally required to maintain microclimatic conditions (e.g., air flow, temperature, and humidity).

Sites used for hibernation in western and northern Canada, particularly along the Pacific Coast, may differ substantially from those elsewhere in the species Canadian range, and our knowledge of the location and biophysical attributes of these hibernacula is very limited (Jung et al. 2014). Bats in some parts of British Columbia may employ different strategies to survive the winter; information on winter activity patterns and how bats use overwintering sites in these areas is limited. However, based on the best available information, the occupancy criteria and biophysical attributes described above are used to identify critical habitat for western Canada herein until further research determines additional or alternative considerations. The schedule of studies (section 7.2) will allow for the complete identification of critical habitat for hibernacula in these areas.

Geographical location

The areas known to contain critical habitat for Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and/or Tri-colored Bat are presented in Figures 4-13. Critical habitat occurs within the standardized UTM grids where the critical habitat criteria (occupancy and biophysical attributes) described in this section are met. Critical habitat is displayed as UTM grids that represent all species that occur within a particular province or territory and identified critical habitat may include one or more of the species of interest (e.g., areas outside of the Tri-colored Bat documented range represents critical habitat for Little Brown Myotis and/or Northern Myotis). The UTM grid squares shown on these figures are part of a standardized national grid system that highlights the general geographic area containing critical habitat. Critical habitat is presented within standardized UTM grids, in order to respect protocols for provincial and territorial species at risk data use (and related agreements) and to protect the species and their habitats from disturbance and the potential introduction of WNS. The grid size used to display the critical habitat (i.e., 10, 50, or 100 km²) is relative to the risks associated with the location of critical habitat being discovered (as perceived by the data owners). More detailed information on the location of critical habitat to support protection of the species and its habitat may be requested, on a need-to-know basis, by contacting Environment and Climate Change Canada’s Recovery Planning section at: ec.planificationduretablissement-recoveryplanning.ec@canada.ca. An agreement with the province/territory or other data custodian may be required to share information on the detailed locations of hibernacula outside of Environment and Climate Change Canada.

A total of 233 hibernacula were identified as critical habitat in Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Alberta, British Columbia, and Northwest Territories based on data as of May 2018. No hibernacula are known in Yukon, Saskatchewan, and Nunavut. Data on the locations of hibernacula in Prince Edward Island are unavailable because of landowner privacy concerns. Additional critical habitat may be added in the future as new information becomes available in an amended recovery strategy or in the species’ action plan.

Maternity roosts

Maternity roosts are used for giving birth and rearing young, and clearly contribute to the survival and recovery of these three species of bats. However, the locations of the vast majority of maternity roosts are currently either unknown or undocumented, or the data are unavailable to Environment and Climate Change Canada. Given this, it is not possible to determine which maternity roosts are necessary for the survival or recovery of these species; therefore, maternity roosts are not identified as critical habitat in this recovery strategy.

Once additional information on the locations and attributes of maternity roosts is available, it will be possible to set criteria that would identify the roosts that are necessary for the survival or recovery of the species as critical habitat. Criteria for identifying which maternity roosts are critical habitat would likely consider species, number of individuals using the roost, whether the roost is within a WNS-affected area, and the number of other known maternity roosts in the vicinity.

The work required to obtain the necessary information and establish criteria for the identification of maternity roosts as critical habitat is included in the schedule of studies (section 7.2).

Similar to hibernacula, knowledge of the location and biophysical attributes of maternity roosts in western Canada is very limited and habitat characteristics may differ substantially from those elsewhere in the species’ Canadian range (Jung et al. 2014). Filling these knowledge gaps is necessary to complete the identification of critical habitat for maternity roosts and will be addressed through completion of the schedule of studies (section 7.2).

Landscape-scale identification

The geographic range of the species, threats, and habitat specificity of Little Brown Myotis (and possibly Northern Myotis) suggest the critical habitat associated with summering habitat (i.e., roosting and foraging) should eventually be identified at a landscape scale. This would permit the long-term management of the habitat needed for survival and recovery of the species. This type of identification would reflect the dynamic mosaic of habitat conditions available and required on the landscape. Nevertheless, the available information is not adequate to currently identify critical habitat at a landscape scale for the following reasons:

• There is a lack of data related to bat presence and abundance in large portions of their ranges
• Habitat requirements may vary across the ranges of the species. Management units (i.e., geographic units within which critical habitat would be managed) need to be identified in such a way to best reflect variation in habitat use and management patterns
• There is a lack of understanding and data to indicate the appropriate configuration of important landscape biophysical attributes
• It is unclear whether certain summering habitats with specific biophysical attributes may be functionally more important than others. For example, specific habitats may have greater densities of individuals and/or result in higher reproductive success
• The relationships between anthropogenic disturbance and habitat quality are poorly known. A better understanding of these relationships is needed to ensure sufficient suitable habitat is available for these species and to identify at what scale and intensity activities would be likely to destroy the critical habitat

It will take many years to gather sufficient data to address the knowledge gaps above. Therefore, a long-term schedule of studies is presented in section 7.2 to address the landscape-scale identification of summering habitat.

Other habitats

Currently, male roosting sites, migration routes, and swarming sites are not identified as critical habitat. It is unclear whether the habitats that support male roosts or migration routes would be required for the survival or recovery of each species. At present, the knowledge of habitat requirements for the selection of significant swarming sites is insufficient to identify the biophysical attributes. Determining if male roosting sites and migration routes warrant identification as critical habitat and studies on the importance and biophysical attributes of swarming sites is included in the schedule of studies (section 7.2).

In summary, the critical habitat of Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat can be partially identified at this time. A schedule of studies has been developed to provide the information necessary to complete the identification of critical habitat that will be sufficient to meet the population and distribution objectives. Although the short-term schedule of studies spans six years, the critical habitat can be updated as new information becomes available, either in a revised recovery strategy or action plan(s).

7.2 Schedule of studies to identify critical habitat

A schedule of studies has been developed to provide the information necessary to complete the identification of critical habitat (Table 6 & 7). A short-term schedule of studies (Table 6) has been developed to target those studies that can further the identification of critical habitat in the near-term to support achieving the short-term population and distribution objectives in Canada. A long-term schedule of studies (Table 7) has been developed to identify those studies that will support a landscape approach to the identification of additional critical habitat necessary for self-sustaining, resilient, redundant and representative bat populations in Canada.

7.3 Activities likely to result in the destruction of critical habitat

This subsection of a recovery strategy identifies activities that are likely to cause the destruction of critical habitat and provides information on how these activities impact critical habitat. Destruction of critical habitat is determined on a case-by-case basis. Destruction would result if part of the critical habitat were degraded, either permanently or temporarily, such that it would not serve its function when needed by the species. Destruction may result from single or multiple activities at one point in time or from the cumulative effects of one or more activities over time. Activities described below include those likely to cause destruction of critical habitat for the species; however, destructive activities are not limited to those listed.

Hibernacula

Activities likely to result in the destruction of hibernacula identified as critical habitat include, but are not limited to, the following: activities resulting in the introduction of WNS into hibernacula previously free of WNS, activities that result in collapsed walls or ceilings or flooding, or activities that result in the hibernaculum being inaccessible or unavailable to bats or alters the hibernaculum’s temperature, humidity, airflow, or other microclimatic characteristics outside of the range acceptable to the bat species for which critical habitat is identified.

^q Bat-friendly gating is often necessary to prohibit human access to hibernacula. Any bat-friendly gates erected to restrict human access should be associated with a well-designed pre- and post-monitoring program that includes measures for adaptable management to ensure no negative impacts to the bats and ensure no reduction in bat access or use of the site (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2007).

8 Measuring progress

The performance indicators presented below provide a way to define and measure progress toward achieving the population and distribution objectives.

Little Brown Myotis and Northern Myotis

• Little Brown Myotis’ and Northern Myotis’ extent of occurrence is maintained (or where applicable restored to) the pre-WNS extent (to be verified every five years)
• In the short-term (12-18 years) within areas affected by WNS, the declining population trends are stopped, or if feasible, increasing population trends are achieved. The objective will be measured against each 6-year cumulative interval (i.e., at 6 years [year 1 to 6 combined], at 12 years [year 1 to 12 combined] and at 18 years [year 1 to18 combined])
• In the long-term (many generations) within areas affected by WNS, each species’ population is self-sustaining, resilient, redundant and representative
• Within areas not yet known to be affected by WNS, stable population trends are maintained, or if feasible, increasing population trends are achieved

Tri-colored Bat

• Tri-colored Bat’s extent of occurrence is restored (then maintained) to the pre-WNS extent of occurrence (to be verified every five years)
• In the short-term (next 10 years), the declining population trend is stopped, or if feasible, an increasing population trend is achieved. The objective will be measured against each 5-year cumulative interval (i.e., at 5 years [year 1 to 5 combined] and at 10 years [year 1 to 10 combined])
• In the long-term (many generations), the population is self-sustaining, resilient, redundant and representative

9 Statement on action plans

One or more action plans for Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat will be posted on the Species at Risk Public Registry within three years of the final posting of the recovery strategy.

10 References

Abbott, I. M., A. Berthinussen, E. Stone, M. Boonman, M. Melber, and J. Altringham. 2015. Bats and Roads. Pages 290-299 In R. van der Ree, D. J. Smith, and C. Grilo (eds.). Handbook of Road Ecology. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Chichester, UK.

Abbott, I. M., S. Harrison, and F. Butler. 2012. Clutter-adaptation of bat species predicts their use of under-motorway passageways of contrasting sizes – a natural experiment. Journal of Zoology 287(2): 124-132.

Adams, R. A. 2010. Bat reproduction declines when conditions mimic climate change projections for western North America. Ecology 91(8): 2437-2445.

Adams, R. A. and M. A. Hayes. 2008. Water availability and successful lactation by bats as related to climate change in arid regions of western North America. Journal of Animal Ecology 77(6): 1115-1121.

Amelon, S. and D. Burhans. 2006. Conservation assessment: Myotis septentrionalis (northern long-eared bat) in the Eastern United States. Pages 69-82 In F. Thompson (ed.). Conservation Assessements of Five Forest Bat Species in Eastern United States. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service General Technical Report. NC.

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Appendix A: Effects on the environment and other species

A strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is conducted on all SARA recovery planning documents, in accordance with the Cabinet Directive on the Environmental Assessment of Policy, Plan and Program Proposals. The purpose of a SEA is to incorporate environmental considerations into the development of public policies, plans, and program proposals to support environmentally sound decision-making and to evaluate whether the outcomes of a recovery planning document could affect any component of the environment or any of the Federal Sustainable Development Strategy’s (FSDS) goals and targets.

Recovery planning is intended to benefit species at risk and biodiversity in general. However, it is recognized that strategies may also inadvertently lead to environmental effects beyond the intended benefits. The planning process based on national guidelines directly incorporates consideration of all environmental effects, with a particular focus on possible impacts upon non-target species or habitats. The results of the SEA are incorporated directly into the strategy itself, but are also summarized below in this statement.

WNS affects other bat species not considered in this recovery strategy (e.g., Eastern Small-footed Myotis – Myotis leibii) (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2018). Therefore, any approaches that mitigate the impact or spread of WNS will most likely also benefit these species. In contrast, it is possible that other species of bats with populations not heavily impacted by WNS (e.g., Big Brown Bat – Eptesicus fuscus) may be benefiting from the declining populations of Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat by filling the niche recently vacated (Francl et al. 2012). It is unknown how recovery of the three at-risk species will affect these other bat species that have recently increased.

Many potential threats identified in this recovery strategy have also been identified as threats for other species at risk. Approaches that help to minimize these threats may also benefit other species. For example, Rusty Blackbird (Euphagus carolinus) is thought to be susceptible to mercury contamination in Eastern Canada (Edmonds et al. 2010), and feral and free-roaming cats have been identified as a potential threat to numerous bird species (Calvert et al. 2013), including other species at risk, such as Common Nighthawk (Chordeiles minor) (Environment Canada 2016). Conservation of forests surrounding hibernacula and roosts may positively affect other species (at local scales) that are also threatened by forest removal (e.g., Canada Warbler – Cardellina canadensis and Woodland Caribou – Rangifer tarandus caribou) (Environment Canada 2012, 2015).

Bat populations consume substantial quantities of insects each night and therefore control the local populations of insects. Initiatives that result in the recovery of bat populations may cause local declines in insect populations (some of which may have already exhibited drastic declines) (Dirzo et al. 2014). In contrast, strategies that investigate the declining insect prey, or research, mitigate, or educate the public about mutual potential threats may aid in the recovery of possible depleted insect populations.

The possibility that the present recovery strategy inadvertently generates negative effects on the environment and on other species was considered. The majority of recommended actions are non-intrusive in nature, including surveys, research, and outreach. It is unlikely that the present recovery strategy will produce significant negative effects.

Appendix B: Additional research needs related to known and suspected threats

The following list is not exhaustive (nor in order of priority), and illustrates some of the research required to understand the threats (other than WNS) to Little Brown Myotis, Northern Myotis, and Tri-colored Bat and their habitats.

Energy production and mining (The median threat rate impact is either high or medium)

• Further investigate the location and characteristics of wind turbines in Canada that may significantly affect bat populations
• Further investigate the timing and population-level effects of wind turbines and continue to develop techniques to reduce mortality
• Continue to monitor frequency of wind turbine collisions in Canada, and develop a consistent range-wide monitoring program for wind energy facilities

Pollution (The median threat rate impact is medium)

• Further investigate the bats’ exposure to mercury and other pollutants across their ranges
• Determine the potential effects of mercury on biology, survival, and behavior
• Determine the effects of neonicotinoids and other widely-used pesticides on bats

• Determine the effects of techniques to reduce the spread of Spruce Budworm on bats
• Determine the effects of light pollution on bat behavior, foraging efficiency, and their prey

Human intrusion and disturbance (The median threat rate impact is low)

• Determine the effects of different levels and types of noise on behavior and biology of bats throughout their life-cycles

• Determine the effects of research activities on bat stress and survival
• Investigate the effects and characteristics of vehicle-bat collisions in Canada
• Investigate the effects of bat collisions related to non-traditional / recreational vehicles and devices (e.g., boats, unmanned aerial vehicles, and fishing lines)

Biological resource use (The medium threat rate impact is low)

• Determine the effects of common forestry operations (e.g., silviculture, and selective cutting) on roost tree availability, behavior, biology, and movement patterns across the range of the species
• Determine the amount (and characteristics) of forest removal, harvesting, and silviculture that can be completed while maintaining enough suitable habitat for bat populations across the range of the species
• Continue to investigate the effects of forest fragmentation from various sources (e.g., agriculture and road development)
• Investigate the significance of habitat loss due to insect outbreaks (e.g., Mountain Pine Beetle)
• Further investigate the effects of exclusion of maternity colonies from anthropogenic structures
• Further investigate the use of bat boxes to mitigate loss of anthropogenic or natural roosting structures

Natural system modifications (The median threat rate impact is low)

• Investigate the potential impact of insect outbreaks and forest fires on these species, their prey, and their habitat

Invasive & Other problematic species & genes (The median threat rate impact is very high because of WNS)

• Determine human-related predation risk in urban and rural areas (e.g., by cats)

Climate change (The median threat rate impact is unknown)

• Determine the impacts of climate change on these species, their prey, and their habitat